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George C. Marshall
3rd United States Secretary of Defense
In office September 21, 1950 – September 12, 1951
President	Harry S. Truman
Deputy	Stephen Early Robert A. Lovett
Preceded by	Louis A. Johnson
Succeeded by	Robert A. Lovett
10th President of the American Red Cross
In office October 1, 1949 – December 1, 1950
Preceded by	Basil O'Connor
50th United States Secretary of State
In office January 21, 1947 – January 20, 1949
President	Harry S. Truman
Deputy	Dean Acheson Robert A. Lovett
Preceded by	James F. Byrnes
Succeeded by	Dean Acheson
15th Chief of Staff of the United States Army
In office September 1, 1939 – November 18, 1945
President	Franklin D. Roosevelt Harry S. Truman
Preceded by	Malin Craig
Succeeded by	Dwight D. Eisenhower
Personal details
Born	George Catlett Marshall (1880-12-31)December 31, 1880 Uniontown, Pennsylvania, U.S.
Died	October 16, 1959(1959-10-16) (aged 78) Washington, D.C., U.S.
Political party	Independent[1]
Spouse(s)	Lily Carter Coles (m. 1902; died 1927) Katherine Boyce Tupper Brown (m. 1930)
Education	Virginia Military Institute (BS)
Civilian awards	Nobel Peace Prize Congressional Gold Medal
Signature
Military service
Allegiance	United States
Branch/service	United States Army
Years of service	1902–1951[2]
Rank	General of the Army
Commands	Chief of Staff of the United States Army 5th Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division Fort Moultrie and District I, Civilian Conservation Corps 8th Infantry Regiment 15th Infantry Regiment
Battles/wars	Philippine–American War World War I Western Front Meuse-Argonne Offensive World War II Chinese Civil War Operation Beleaguer Korean War
Military awards	Army Distinguished Service Medal (2) Silver Star Complete list
College football career
VMI Keydets
Position	Left Tackle
Career history
College	VMI (1900)
Career highlights and awards
All-Southern (1900)

George Catlett Marshall Jr. (December 31, 1880 – October 16, 1959) was an American statesman and soldier. He rose through the United States Army to become Chief of Staff under presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman, then served as Secretary of State and Secretary of Defense under Truman.^[3]Winston Churchill lauded Marshall as the "organizer of victory" for his leadership of the Allied victory in World War II, although Marshall declined a final field leadership position that went to his protege, later U.S. President, Dwight D. Eisenhower. After the war, as Secretary of State, Marshall advocated a significant U.S. economic and political commitment to post-war European recovery, including the Marshall Plan that bore his name. In recognition of this work, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1953.^[4]

Born in Uniontown, Pennsylvania, Marshall graduated from the Virginia Military Institute in 1901. After serving briefly as commandant of students at the Danville Military Academy in Danville, Virginia, Marshall received his commission as a second lieutenant of Infantry in February, 1902. In the years after the Spanish–American War, he served in the United States and overseas in positions of increasing rank and responsibility, including platoon leader and company commander in the Philippines during the Philippine–American War. He was the Honor Graduate of his Infantry-Cavalry School Course in 1907, and graduated first in his 1908 Army Staff College class. In 1916 Marshall was assigned as aide-de-camp to J. Franklin Bell, the commander of the Western Department. After the United States entered World War I, Marshall served with Bell while Bell commanded the Department of the East. He was assigned to the staff of the 1st Division, and assisted with the organization's mobilization and training in the United States, as well as planning of its combat operations in France. Subsequently, assigned to the staff of the American Expeditionary Forces headquarters, he was a key planner of American operations including the Meuse-Argonne Offensive.

After the war, Marshall became an aide-de-camp to John J. Pershing, who was then the Army's Chief of Staff. Marshall later served on the Army staff, commanded the 15th Infantry Regiment in China, and was an instructor at the Army War College. In 1927, he became assistant commandant of the Army's Infantry School, where he modernized command and staff processes, which proved to be of major benefit during World War II. In 1932 and 1933 he commanded the 8th Infantry Regiment and Fort Screven, Georgia. Marshall commanded 5th Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division and Vancouver Barracks from 1936 to 1938, and received promotion to brigadier general. During this command, Marshall was also responsible for 35 Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camps in Oregon and southern Washington. In July 1938, Marshall was assigned to the War Plans Division on the War Department staff, and later became the Army's Deputy Chief of Staff. When Chief of Staff Malin Craig retired in 1939, Marshall became acting Chief of Staff, and then Chief of Staff, a position he held until the war's end in 1945.

As Chief of Staff, Marshall organized the largest military expansion in U.S. history, and received promotion to five-star rank as General of the Army. Marshall coordinated Allied operations in Europe and the Pacific until the end of the war. In addition to accolades from Churchill and other Allied leaders, Time magazine named Marshall its Man of the Year for 1943. Marshall retired from active service in 1945, but remained on active duty, as required for holders of five-star rank.^[5] From December 15, 1945 to January 1947 Marshall served as a special envoy to China in an unsuccessful effort to negotiate a coalition government between the Nationalists of Chiang Kai-shek and Communists under Mao Zedong.

As Secretary of State from 1947 to 1949, Marshall advocated rebuilding Europe, a program that became known as the Marshall Plan, and which led to his being awarded the 1953 Nobel Peace Prize.^[6] After resigning as Secretary of State, Marshall served as chairman of American Battle Monuments Commission^[7] and president of the American National Red Cross. As Secretary of Defense at the start of the Korean War, Marshall worked to restore the military's confidence and morale at the end of its post-World War II demobilization and then its initial buildup for combat in Korea and operations during the Cold War. After resigning as Defense Secretary, Marshall retired to his home in Virginia. He died in 1959 and was buried with honors at Arlington National Cemetery.

Early life

1900 VMI Keydets football team. Marshall encircled

George Catlett Marshall Jr. was born into a middle-class family in Uniontown, Pennsylvania, the son of George Catlett Marshall Sr. and Laura Emily (née Bradford) Marshall.^[8] Marshall was a scion of an old Virginia family, as well as a distant relative of former Chief Justice John Marshall.^[9] Later, when asked about his political allegiances, Marshall often joked that his father had been a Democrat and his mother a Republican, whereas he was an Episcopalian.^[10]

Immediately after World War I, making good on his promise to share insights on his successes in World War I with cadets at his alma mater, the Virginia Military Institute, Marshall provided VMI’s superintendent his observations on what successful leadership in combat in the American Army in France.
. Forrest C. Pogue, “George C. Marshall on Civil-Military Relationships in the United States,” in The United States Military Under the Constitution of the United States, 1789-1989, ed. Richard H. Kohn (New York, 1991), 193. 2. Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall: Ordeal and Hope, 1939-1942 (NY, 1966), xiv. 3. Thomas Parrish,Roosevelt and Marshall: Partners in Politics and war (New York, 1989), 37-38. 4. Pogue, Ordeal and Hope, 303-304. 5. Leonard Mosley, Marshall: Hero for Our Times(New York, 1982), 127. 6. Marshall interview, 5 April 1957, George C. Marshall Interviews and Reminiscences for Forrest C. Pogue, ed. Larry I. Bland (Lexington, Virginia, 1991), 197-198. (Hereafter Marshall interview and date, Bland, Interviews and Reminiscences, with appropriate page number.) 7. Ibid. 8. Marshall interview, 6 March 1957, Bland, Interviews and Reminiscences, 111. 9. Mosley, 121. 10. Marshall interview, 6 March 1957, Bland, Interviews and Reminiscences, 109. 11. Mosley, 122. 12. Marshall interview, March 6, 1957, Bland, Interviews and Reminiscences, 109. 13. Mark A. Stoler, George C. Marshall: Soldier-Statesman of the American Century(Boston, 1989), 65. 14. Pogue, Ordeal and Hope, 23. 15. Eric Larrabee, Commander in Chief: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, His Lieutenants & Their War (New York, 1987), 109. 16. The preceding paragraphs pertaining to this incident rest on Pogue, “George C. Marshall on Civil-Military Relationships in the United States,” 206. 17. David G. Haglund, “George C. Marshall and the Question of Military Aid to England, May-June 1940,” Journal of Contemporary History 15 (1980): 745-760. 18. This and the following discussion rest upon Pogue, Ordeal and Hope, 50-53. 19. A. J. Bacevich, “”Civilian Control: A useful Fiction?” Joint Forces Quarterly (Autumn/Winter 1994-95): 78. 20. Haglund, 745-760. 21. Pogue, Ordeal and Hope, 53. 22. Marshall interview, 15 January 1957, Bland, Interviews and Reminiscences, 288. 23. Parrish, 137. 24. Marshall interview, 22 January 1957, Bland, Interviews and Reminiscences, 297. 25. Parrish, 137. 26. Bacevich, 78. 27. Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall: Organizer of Victory, 1943-1945 (New York, 1973), 458-459.
28. Thomas H. Johnson, “George C. Marshall (1880-1959),” no date, unpublished poem, in author’s possession.

Early infantry career and the Philippines

Following his graduation from VMI, Marshall sat for a competitive examination for a commission in the United States Army.^[11] While awaiting the results, Marshall had accepted the position of Commandant of Students at the Danville Military Institute in Danville, Virginia.^[12] Marshall passed the exam and was commissioned a second lieutenant in February, 1902.^[13]

Prior to World War I, Marshall received various postings in the United States and the Philippines, including serving as an infantry platoon leader and company commander during the Philippine–American War and other guerrilla uprisings.^[14] He was schooled in modern warfare, including a tour at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas from 1906 to 1910 as both a student and an instructor.^[15] He was the Honor Graduate of his Infantry-Cavalry School Course in 1907, and graduated first in his 1908 Army Staff College class.^[16]

After another tour of duty in the Philippines, Marshall returned to the United States in 1916 to serve as aide-de-camp to the commander of the Western Department, former Army chief of staff Major General J. Franklin Bell, at the Presidio in San Francisco.^[16] After the United States declared war on Germany in April 1917, Marshall relocated with Bell to Governors Island, New York when Bell was reassigned as commander of the Department of the East.^[16] Shortly afterwards, Marshall was assigned to help oversee the mobilization of the 1st Division for service in France.^[16]

World War I

Immediately after World War I, making good on his promise to share insights on his successes in World War I with cadets at his alma mater, the Virginia Military Institute, Marshall provided VMI’s superintendent his observations on what successful leadership in combat in the American Army in France.
^[17]
During World War I, Marshall had roles as a planner of both training and operations. In the summer of 1917, he was assigned as assistant chief of staff for operations on the staff of the 1st Division.^[16] After overseeing the division's mobilization and organization in Texas, he departed for France with the division staff in mid-1917.^[16] On the long ocean voyage, his roommate was the division's assistant chief of staff for training, Lesley J. McNair;^[18] the two formed a personal and professional bond that they maintained for the rest of their careers.^[19]

After arriving in France, Marshall served with the 1st Division on the St. Mihiel, Picardy, and Cantigny fronts.^[16] He won recognition and acclaim for his planning of the attack for the Battle of Cantigny, which took place from May 28 to 31, 1918;^[16] its success resulted in the first notable American victory of the war.^[20] On May 26, Marshall was injured while travelling to several subordinate units to conduct pre-attack coordination.^[21] As he departed the division headquarters area, his horse stumbled, fell, and rolled over;^[22] Marshall's left foot was caught in the stirrup, and he sustained a severe sprain and bruise.^[22] A physician bound Marshall's injured ankle and foot with adhesive tape so that he could avoid medical evacuation and remain with the division to oversee the Cantigny attack.^[23]

In mid-1918, he was posted to the headquarters of the American Expeditionary Force, where he worked closely with his mentor, General John Joseph Pershing, and was a key planner of American operations. He was instrumental in the planning and coordination of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, which contributed to the defeat of the German Army on the Western Front in 1918.^[24] Marshall held the permanent rank of captain and the temporary rank of colonel;^[25] he was recommended for promotion to temporary brigadier general in October 1918, but the Armistice occurred before the recommendation was acted on.^[26] After the war, Marshall reverted to his permanent rank.^[26]

Between the wars

Colonel George Marshall in France in 1919

In 1919, he became an aide-de-camp to General John J. Pershing. Between 1920 and 1924, while Pershing was Army Chief of Staff, Marshall worked in a number of positions in the army, focusing on training and teaching modern, mechanized warfare. Between the World Wars, he was a key planner and writer in the War Department, commanded the 15th Infantry Regiment for three years in China, and taught at the Army War College. In 1927, as a lieutenant colonel, he was appointed assistant commandant of the Infantry School at Fort Benning, where he initiated major changes to modernize command and staff processes, which proved to be of major benefit during World War II. Marshall placed Edwin F. Harding in charge of the Infantry School's publications, and Harding became editor^[27]:41 of Infantry in Battle, a book that codified the lessons of World War I. Infantry in Battle is still used as an officer's training manual in the Infantry Officer's Course and was the training manual for most of the infantry officers and leaders of World War II.

From June 1932 to June 1933, Marshall was the commanding officer of the 8th Infantry Regiment at Fort Screven, Georgia. From July 1933 to October 1933 he was commander of Fort Moultrie, South Carolina and District I of the Civilian Conservation Corps, and he was promoted to colonel in September 1933. He was senior instructor and chief of staff for the Illinois National Guard's 33rd Division from November 1933 to August 1936.

Marshall commanded the 5th Brigade of the 3rd Infantry Division and Vancouver Barracks in Vancouver, Washington from 1936 to 1938, and was promoted to brigadier general in October 1936. In addition to obtaining a long-sought and significant troop command, traditionally viewed as an indispensable step to the pinnacle of the US Army, Marshall was also responsible for 35 Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camps in Oregon and southern Washington. As post commander Marshall made a concerted effort to cultivate relations with the city of Portland and to enhance the image of the US Army in the region. With the CCC, he initiated a series of measures to improve the morale of the participants and to make the experience beneficial in their later life. He started a newspaper for the CCC region that proved a vehicle to promote CCC successes, and he initiated a variety of programs that developed their skills and improved their health. Marshall's inspections of the CCC camps gave him and his wife Katherine the chance to enjoy the beauty of the American northwest and made that assignment what he called "the most instructive service I ever had, and the most interesting."^[28]

In July 1938, Marshall was assigned to the War Plans Division in Washington D.C. and subsequently reassigned as Deputy Chief of Staff. In that capacity, then-Brigadier General Marshall attended a conference at the White House at which President Roosevelt proposed a plan to provide aircraft to England in support of the war effort, lacking forethought with regard to logistical support or training. With all other attendees voicing support of the plan, Marshall was the only person to voice his disagreement. Despite the common belief that he had ended his career, this action resulted in his being nominated by President Franklin Roosevelt to be the Army Chief of Staff. Upon the retirement of General Malin Craig on July 1, 1939, Marshall became acting chief of staff. Marshall was promoted to general and sworn in as chief of staff on September 1, 1939, the same day the German Army launched its invasion of Poland.^[29] He would hold this post until the end of the war in 1945.

World War II

Marshall during World War II

As Chief of Staff, Marshall organized the largest military expansion in U.S. history, inheriting an outmoded, poorly equipped army of 189,000 men and, partly drawing from his experience teaching and developing techniques of modern warfare as an instructor at the Army War College, coordinated the large-scale expansion and modernization of the U.S. Army. Though he had never actually led troops in combat, Marshall was a skilled organizer with a talent for inspiring other officers.^[30] Many of the American generals who were given top commands during the war were either picked or recommended by Marshall, including Dwight D. Eisenhower, Jacob L. Devers, George S. Patton, Terry de la Mesa Allen Sr., Lloyd Fredendall, Lesley McNair, Mark Wayne Clark and Omar Bradley.^[31]

Expands military force fortyfold

Faced with the necessity of turning an army of former civilians into a force of over eight million soldiers by 1942 (a fortyfold increase within three years), Marshall directed General Lesley J. McNair to focus efforts on rapidly producing large numbers of soldiers. With the exception of airborne forces, Marshall approved McNair's concept of an abbreviated training schedule for men entering Army land forces training, particularly in regard to basic infantry skills, weapons proficiency, and combat tactics.^[32][33] At the time, most U.S. commanders at lower levels had little or no combat experience of any kind. Without the input of experienced British or Allied combat officers on the nature of modern warfare and enemy tactics, many resorted to formulaic training methods emphasizing static defense and orderly large-scale advances by motorized convoys over improved roads.^[34] In consequence, Army forces deploying to Africa in Operation Torch suffered serious initial reverses when encountering German armored combat units in Africa at Kasserine Pass and other major battles.^[35] Even as late as 1944, U.S. soldiers undergoing stateside training in preparation for deployment against German forces in Europe were not being trained in combat procedures and tactics in use there.^[36]

Replacement system criticized

Marshall with Secretary of War Henry Stimson

Originally, Marshall had planned a 265-division Army with a system of unit rotation such as practiced by the British and other Allies.^[37] By mid-1943, however, after pressure from government and business leaders to preserve manpower for industry and agriculture, he had abandoned this plan in favor of a 90-division Army using individual replacements sent via a circuitous process from training to divisions in combat.^[37] The individual replacement system devised by Marshall and implemented by McNair exacerbated problems with unit cohesion and effective transfer of combat experience to new soldiers and officers.^[35][38] In Europe, where there were few pauses in combat with German forces, the individual replacement system had broken down completely by late 1944.^[39] Hastily-trained replacements or service personnel reassigned as infantry were often given only a few weeks' refresher training before being thrown into battle with Army divisions locked in front-line combat.

The new men were often not even proficient in the use of their own weapons, and once in combat, could not receive enough practical instruction from veterans before being killed or wounded, sometimes within the first few days.^[35][40][41] Under such conditions, many soldiers suffered a crippling loss of morale, while veterans were kept at the front until they were killed, wounded, or incapacitated by battle fatigue or illness. Incidents of soldiers going AWOL from combat duty as well as battle fatigue and self-inflicted injury rose rapidly during the last eight months of the war with Germany.^[35][38][40] As one historian concluded, "Had the Germans been given a free hand to devise a replacement system..., one that would do the Americans the most harm and the least good, they could not have done a better job."^[40][42]

Marshall's abilities to pick competent field commanders during the early part of the war was decidedly mixed. While he had been instrumental in advancing the career of the able Dwight D. Eisenhower, he had also recommended the swaggering Lloyd Fredendall to Eisenhower for a major command in the American invasion of North Africa during Operation Torch. Marshall was especially fond of Fredendall, describing him as "one of the best" and remarking in a staff meeting when his name was mentioned, "I like that man; you can see determination all over his face." Eisenhower duly picked him to command the 39,000-man Central Task Force (the largest of three) in Operation Torch. Both men would come to regret that decision, as Fredendall was the leader of U.S. Army forces at the disastrous Battle of the Kasserine Pass.^[31]

Planned invasion of Europe

Cover to the book Infantry in Battle, the World War II officer's guide to infantry combat operations. Marshall directed production of the book, which is still used as a reference today.

During World War II, Marshall was instrumental in preparing the U.S. Army and Army Air Forces for the invasion of the European continent. Marshall wrote the document that would become the central strategy for all Allied operations in Europe. He initially scheduled Operation Overlord for April 1, 1943, but met with strong opposition from Winston Churchill, who convinced Roosevelt to commit troops to Operation Husky for the invasion of Italy. Some authors think that World War II could have ended earlier if Marshall had had his way; others think that such an invasion would have meant utter failure.

It was assumed that Marshall would become the Supreme Commander of Operation Overlord, but Roosevelt selected Dwight Eisenhower as Supreme Commander. While Marshall enjoyed considerable success in working with Congress and President Franklin D. Roosevelt, he refused to lobby for the position. President Roosevelt didn't want to lose his presence in the states. He told Marshall, "I didn't feel I could sleep at ease if you were out of Washington."^[43] When rumors circulated that the top job would go to Marshall, many critics viewed the transfer as a demotion for Marshall, since he would leave his position as Chief of Staff of the Army and lose his seat on the Combined Chiefs of Staff.^[44]

On December 16, 1944, Marshall became the first American Army general to be promoted to five-star rank, the newly created General of the Army – the American equivalent rank to field marshal. He was the second American to be promoted to a five-star rank, as William Leahy was promoted to fleet admiral the previous day.

Throughout the remainder of World War II, Marshall coordinated Allied operations in Europe and the Pacific. He was characterized as the organizer of Allied victory by Winston Churchill. Time magazine named Marshall Man of the Year for 1943. Marshall resigned his post of chief of staff in 1945, but did not retire, as regulations stipulate that Generals of the Army remain on active duty for life.^[5]

Analysis of Pearl Harbor intelligence failure

After World War II ended, the Congressional Joint Committee on the Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack received testimony on the intelligence failure. It amassed 25,000 pages of documents, 40 volumes, and included nine reports and investigations, eight of which had been previously completed. These reports included criticism of Marshall for delay in sending General Walter Short, the Army commander in Hawaii, important information obtained from intercepted Japanese diplomatic messages. The report also criticized Marshall's lack of knowledge of the readiness of the Hawaiian Command during November and December 1941. Ten days after the attack, Lt. General Short and Admiral Husband E. Kimmel, commander of the Navy at Pearl Harbor, were both relieved of their duties. The final report of the Joint Committee did not single out or fault Marshall. While the report was critical of the overall situation, the committee noted that subordinates had failed to pass on important information to their superiors, including Marshall.^[45][46]

A secret report into the Army's role, the Clausen Report was authorised by Secretary Stimson; it was critical of Short and also of Colonel Bratton who, he concluded, arrived later on Sunday morning than he initially claimed during testimony and invented a story about not being able to get in touch with Marshall which "nearly destroyed" Marshall.

Post war: China

In December 1945, President Harry Truman sent Marshall to China, to broker a coalition government between the Nationalist allies under Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek and Communists under Mao Zedong. Mao promised Marshall the Communists would give up armed revolution, embrace the old enemies, and build a democracy in China. Marshall hoped for a coalition government, and toasted their common future. The Americans assumed that if the Communist won the Civil War, they would remain on friendly terms with the United States. ^[47] Marshall had no leverage over the Communists, but he threatened to withdraw American aid essential to the Nationalists. Both sides rejected his proposals and the Chinese Civil War escalated, with the Communists winning in 1949. His mission a failure, he returned to the United States in January 1947.^[48][49] Chiang Kai-shek and some historians later claimed that cease-fire, under pressure of Marshall, saved the Communists from defeat.^[50][51] As Secretary of State in 1947–48, Marshall seems to have disagreed with strong opinions in The Pentagon and State Department that Chiang's success was vital to American interests, insisting that U.S. troops not become involved.

Secretary of State and Nobel Peace Prize

Medallion issued in 1982 to honor George Marshall's post-war work for Europe

After Marshall's return to the U.S. in early 1947, Truman appointed Marshall Secretary of State. He became the spokesman for the State Department's ambitious plans to rebuild Europe. On June 5, 1947 in a speech^[52] at Harvard University, he outlined the American proposal. The European Recovery Program, as it was formally known, became known as the Marshall Plan. Clark Clifford had suggested to Truman that the plan be called the Truman Plan, but Truman immediately dismissed that idea and insisted that it be called the Marshall Plan.^[53][54] The Marshall Plan would help Europe quickly rebuild and modernize its economy along American lines. The Soviet Union forbade its satellites to participate.

Marshall was again named Time's Man of the Year for 1947. He received the Nobel Peace Prize for his post-war work in 1953, the only career officer in the United States Army to ever receive this honor.

As Secretary of State, Marshall strongly opposed recognizing the state of Israel. Marshall felt that if the state of Israel was declared that a war would break out in the Middle East (which it did in 1948 one day after Israel declared independence). Marshall saw recognizing the Jewish state as a political move to gain Jewish support in the upcoming election, in which Truman was expected to lose to Dewey. He told President Truman in May 1948, "If you (recognize the state of Israel) and if I were to vote in the election, I would vote against you."^[55][56][57] However, Marshall refused to vote in any election as a matter of principle.^[58]

Marshall resigned from the State Department because of ill health on January 7, 1949, and the same month became chairman of the American Battle Monuments Commission.^[7] In September 1949, Marshall was named president of the American National Red Cross.

Secretary of Defense

Secretary of Defense George C. Marshall sits for a portrait in 1950.

When the early months of the Korean War showed how poorly prepared the Defense Department was, President Truman fired Secretary Louis A. Johnson and named Marshall as Secretary of Defense in September 1950. The appointment required a congressional waiver because the National Security Act of 1947 prohibited a uniformed military officer from serving in the post. This prohibition included Marshall since individuals promoted to General of the Army are not technically retired, but remain officially on active duty even after their active service has concluded. General Marshall was the first person to be granted such a waiver, with Defense Secretary James Mattis being the second to receive it. Marshall's main role as Secretary of Defense was to restore confidence and morale while rebuilding the armed forces following their post-World War II demobilization.

Korean War

George Marshall portrait by Thomas E. Stephens (c. 1949)

Marshall worked to provide more manpower to meet the demands of both the Korean War and the Cold War in Europe. To implement his priorities Marshall brought in a new leadership team, including Robert A. Lovett as his deputy and Anna M. Rosenberg, former head of the War Manpower Commission, as assistant secretary of defense for manpower. He also worked to rebuild the relationship between the Defense and State Departments, as well as the relationship between the Secretary of Defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

Marshall participated in the post-Inchon landing discussion that led to authorizing Douglas MacArthur to conduct operations in North Korea. A secret "eyes only" signal from Marshall to MacArthur on September 29, 1950 declared the Truman administration's commitment: "We want you to feel unhampered strategically and tactically to proceed north of the 38th Parallel".^[59] At the same time, Marshall advised against public pronouncements which might lead to United Nations votes undermining or countermanding the initial mandate to restore the border between North and South Korea. Marshall and the Joint Chiefs of Staff were generally supportive of MacArthur because they were of the view that field commanders should be able to exercise their best judgment in accomplishing the intent of their superiors.

Following Chinese military intervention in Korea during late November, Marshall and the Joint Chiefs of Staff sought ways to aid MacArthur while avoiding all-out war with China. In the debate over what to do about China's increased involvement, Marshall opposed a cease–fire on the grounds that it would make the U.S. look weak in China's eyes, leading to demands for future concessions. In addition, Marshall argued that the U.S. had a moral obligation to honor its commitment to South Korea. When British Prime Minister Clement Attlee suggested diplomatic overtures to China, Marshall opposed, arguing that it was impossible to negotiate with the Communist government. In addition, Marshall expressed concern that concessions to China would undermine confidence in the U.S. among its Asian allies, including Japan and the Philippines. When some in Congress favored expanding the war in Korea and confronting China, Marshall argued against a wider war in Korea, continuing instead to stress the importance of containing the Soviet Union during the Cold War battle for primacy in Europe.

Relief of General MacArthur

Increasingly concerned about public statements from General Douglas MacArthur, commander of United Nations forces fighting in the Korean War, which contradicted President Harry S. Truman's on prosecution of the war, on the morning of 6 April 1951, Truman held a meeting with Marshall, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Omar Bradley, Secretary of State Dean Acheson and advisor W. Averell Harriman to discuss whether MacArthur should be removed from command.

Harriman was emphatically in favor of MacArthur's relief, but Bradley opposed it. Marshall asked for more time to consider the matter. Acheson was in favor but did not disclose this, instead warning Truman that if he did it, MacArthur's relief would cause "the biggest fight of your administration." At another meeting the following day, Marshall and Bradley continued to oppose MacArthur's relief. On 8 April, the Joint Chiefs of Staff met with Marshall, and each expressed the view that MacArthur's relief was desirable from a "military point of view," suggesting that "if MacArthur were not relieved, a large segment of our people would charge that civil authorities no longer controlled the military."

Marshall, Bradley, Acheson and Harriman met with Truman again on 9 April. Bradley informed the President of the views of the Joint Chiefs, and Marshall added that he agreed with them. Truman wrote in his diary that "it is of unanimous opinion of all that MacArthur be relieved. All four so advise."^[60] (The Joint Chiefs would later insist that they had only "concurred" with the relief, not "recommended" it.)

On April 11, 1951, President Truman directed transmittal of an order to MacArthur, issued over Bradley's signature, relieving MacArthur of his assignment in Korea and directing him to turn over command to Matthew Ridgway. In line with Marshall's view, and those of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, MacArthur's relief was looked upon by proponents as being necessary to reassert the tenet of civilian control of the military.

Retirement

Marshall retired in September 1951 to his home, Dodona Manor, in Leesburg, Virginia to tend to his gardens and continue his passion for horseback riding. He was head of the American delegation at the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953. He also served as Chairman of the American Battle Monuments Commission from 1949 to 1959.

Death and burial

Grave site of George Marshall at Arlington National Cemetery

Marshall died at Walter Reed Hospital in Washington, D.C. on October 16, 1959 at the age of 78. Although he was entitled to an Official Funeral, Marshall preferred simplicity, so received a Special Military Funeral after lying in state at the Washington National Cathedral for 21 hours, guarded by representatives from all the U.S. armed services, as well as a VMI cadet.^[61] President Dwight D. Eisenhower ordered flags flown at half-mast, and was among the invited guests at the funeral service at the Fort Myer Old Post Chapel; other dignitaries included former President Truman, Secretary of State Christian A. Herter, former Secretary of State Dean G. Acheson, W. Averell Harriman and Generals Omar N. Bradley, Alfred M. Gruenther and General Matthew B. Ridgway. His parish priest, Rev. Franklin Moss Jr. from St. James Episcopal Church in Leesburg, Virginia conducted the chapel and graveside services, assisted by former chief chaplain and National Cathedral Canon Rev. Luther Miller. Following a 19-gun salute, Marshall was buried at Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia, in a place he had picked, in Section 7, Grave 8198, beside his first wife, Elizabeth Carter Coles (1875–1927) and her mother, Elizabeth Pendleton Coles (1849–1929); his second wife, Katherine Tupper Brown Marshall (1882–1978) would later join them.

Reputation and legacy

Marshall's reputation for excellence as a military organizer and planner was recognized early in his career, and became known throughout the Army. In a performance appraisal prepared while Marshall was a lieutenant in the Philippines, his superior, Captain E. J. Williams responded to the routine question of whether he would want the evaluated officer to serve under his command again by writing of Marshall "Should the exigencies of active service place him in exalted command I would be glad to serve under him." (Emphasis added.)^[62]

In 1913, Lieutenant Colonel Johnson Hagood completed a written evaluation of Marshall's performance in which he called Marshall a military genius. Responding to the question of whether he would want his subordinate Marshall to serve under him again, Hagood wrote "Yes, but I would prefer to serve under his command." (Emphasis added.)^[63] Hagood went on to recommend Marshall's immediate promotion to brigadier general, despite the fact that there were more than 1,800 officers, including Hagood, who were senior to him.^[64]

After the surrender of the Nazi German government in May 1945, Henry L. Stimson, the Secretary of War, paid tribute to Marshall in front of a gathering of members of the Army staff, concluding with: "I have seen a great many soldiers in my lifetime and you, Sir, are the finest soldier I have ever known."^[65]

In addition to his military success, Marshall is primarily remembered as the driving force behind the Marshall Plan, which provided billions of dollars in aid to post war Europe to restart the economies of the destroyed countries. In recent years, the cooperation required between former European adversaries as part of the Marshall Plan has been recognized as one of the earliest factors that led to formation of the European Coal and Steel Community, and eventually the European Union.^[66]

In a television interview after leaving office, Harry S. Truman was asked which American he thought had made the greatest contribution of the preceding thirty years. Without hesitation, Truman picked Marshall, adding "I don't think in this age in which I have lived, that there has been a man who has been a greater administrator; a man with a knowledge of military affairs equal to General Marshall."^[67]

Orson Welles said in an interview with Dick Cavett that "Marshall is the greatest man I ever met... I think he was the greatest human being who was also a great man... He was a tremendous gentleman, an old fashioned institution which isn't with us anymore."^[68]

Family life

George Marshall was the youngest of three siblings.^[69] His older brother Stuart Bradford Marshall (1875–1956) was a graduate of the Virginia Military Institute, and became a manager and executive in several metal production corporations, including the American Manganese Manufacturing Company.^[70][71][72] He later worked as a metallurgist and consulting engineer specializing in the production and operation of blast furnaces, coke ovens, and foundries.^[73] George and Stuart Marshall were long estranged; according to relatives, George Marshall's first wife, Lily, had dated other VMI cadets before him, and rejected their proposals, to include Stuart Marshall.^[70] When Stuart found out George was engaged to Lily, Stuart made unkind remarks about her, and George "cut him off my list".^[70] His sister, Marie Louise (1876–1962) was the wife of Dr. John Johnson Singer, an Army physician who died in 1934.^[74]

Marshall married Elizabeth Carter Coles, or "Lily", at her mother's home on Letcher Avenue in Lexington, Virginia, on 11 February 1902.^[75] She died on 15 September 1927 after thyroid surgery that put significant strain on her weak heart.^[76] They did not have children.^[77]

On 15 October 1930, Marshall married Katherine Boyce Tupper (8 October 1882 – 18 December 1978);^[78][79] Katherine Tupper was the mother of three children with Baltimore lawyer Clifton Stevenson Brown, who had been murdered by a disgruntled client in 1928.^[80][81] The second Mrs. Marshall was a graduate of the American Academy of Dramatic Arts; she later studied at the Comédie-Française, and toured with Frank Benson's English Shakespearean Company.^[82] She authored a memoir, 1946's Together: Annals of an Army Wife.^[83] One of Marshall's stepsons, Allen Tupper Brown, was an Army lieutenant who was killed by a German sniper in Italy on May 29, 1944. Another stepson was Major Clifton Stevenson Brown Jr. (1914–1952). Step-daughter Molly Brown Winn, who was the mother of actress Kitty Winn, was married to US Army Major James Julius Winn, who had been an aide to General Marshall.

Marshall was a Freemason, having been made a Mason "at sight" in 1941 by the Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of the District of Columbia.
^[84]

George Marshall maintained a home, known as Dodona Manor and later as The Marshall House, in Leesburg, Virginia.^[85] This was his first and only permanent residence owned by Marshall who later said "this is Home...a real home after 41 years of wandering."^[86] The restored home and its surrounding gardens are open to the public as a museum.

Fictional portrayals

Marshall has been played in film and television by

• 
  Keith Andes in the 1970 film Tora! Tora! Tora!
  


• 
  Ward Costello in the 1977 film MacArthur
  


• 
  Dana Andrews in the 1979 film Ike, The War Years.


• 
  Norman Burton in the 1988 miniseries War and Remembrance.


• 
  Hal Holbrook in the 1989 television film Day One.


• 
  Harris Yulin in the 1995 television movie Truman.


• 
  Harve Presnell in the 1998 film Saving Private Ryan.


• 
  Scott Wilson in the 2001 film Pearl Harbor.


• Donald Eugene McCoy in the 2009 Chinese movie The Founding of a Republic.


• Richard DuVal in the 2012 Russian mini-series "Chkalov".

Marshall is a character in three different alternate history timelines in novels by Harry Turtledove: Worldwar, Joe Steele, and The Hot War.

Dates of rank

No pin insignia in 1902	Second lieutenant, United States Army: February 2, 1901 (Appointment accepted on February 2, 1902.)
	First lieutenant, United States Army: March 7, 1907
	Captain, United States Army: July 1, 1916
	Major, National Army: August 5, 1917
	Lieutenant colonel, National Army: January 5, 1918
	Colonel, National Army: August 27, 1918
	Captain, Regular Army (reverted to permanent rank): June 30, 1920
	Major, Regular Army : July 1, 1920
	Lieutenant colonel, Regular Army: August 21, 1923
	Colonel, Regular Army: September 1, 1933
	Brigadier general, Regular Army: October 1, 1936
	Major general, Regular Army: September 1, 1939
	General, temporary, for service as Army Chief of Staff: September 1, 1939[87]
	General of the Army, Army of the United States: December 16, 1944
	General of the Army rank made permanent in the Regular Army: April 11, 1946

^[88]

Awards and decorations

U.S. military honors

	Distinguished Service Medal with one Oak Leaf Cluster
	Silver Star
	Philippine Campaign Medal
	World War I Victory Medal with four campaign clasps
	Army of Occupation of Germany Medal
	American Defense Service Medal
	American Campaign Medal
	World War II Victory Medal
	National Defense Service Medal

Foreign orders

	Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (United Kingdom)
	Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (France)
	Grand Cross of the Order of Military Merit (Brazil) (Presented by General Francisco José Pinto on behalf of President Getulio Vargas on 3 June 1939)[89]
	Grand Cross of the Order of Merit (Chile)
	Grand Cross of the Order of Boyacá Cherifien (Colombia) (Given by President Ospina Perez as he opened the IX Panamerican Conference, March 1948)
	Member 1st Class of the Order of Military Merit (Cuba)
	Member 1st Class of the Order of Abdon Calderon (Ecuador)
	Knight Grand Cross with swords of the Order of George I (Greece)
	Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (Italy)
	Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Italy (Italy)
	Grand Cross of the Order of Ouissam Alaouite (Morocco)
	Knight Grand Cross with swords of the Order of Orange-Nassau (Netherlands)
	Grand Officer of the Order of the Sun (Peru)
	Member 1st Class of the Order of Suvorov (Soviet Union)

Foreign decorations and medals

	Croix de Guerre 1914–1918 with bronze palm (France)
	Medal for the Centennial of the Republic of Liberia
	Silver Medal for Bravery (Montenegro)
	Medal of Solidarity, 2nd Class (Panama)
	Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Medal (United Kingdom)

Civilian honors

• 1943 – Awarded the American Legion's Distinguished Service Medal.


• October 16, 1945 – presented with permanent membership in the Reserve Officers Association by President Harry Truman.


• 1946 – awarded the United States Congressional Gold Medal.^[90]


• 1948 – awarded the Grand Lodge of New York's Distinguished Achievement Award for his role and contributions during and after World War II.


• 1953 – Nobel Peace Prize for the Marshall Plan.


• 1959 – Karlspreis (International Charlemagne Prize of the city of Aachen).


• 1965–1978 – The United States Postal Service honored him with a Prominent Americans series 20¢ postage stamp.

Namesakes

• 1960 – George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, originally the Army Ballistic Missile Agency at Redstone Arsenal, Huntsville, Alabama, became a NASA field center and was renamed.


• The British Parliament established the Marshall Scholarship in recognition of Marshall's contributions to Anglo-American relations.


• Many buildings and streets throughout the U.S. and other nations are named in his honor.


• George C. Marshall Award, the highest award given to a chapter in Kappa Alpha Order.


• 
  George C. Marshall High School, founded in 1962 and located in Falls Church, Virginia, is the only public high school in the United States named for Marshall. The nickname of the school – "The Statesmen" – appropriately reflects his life and contributions.


• George C. Marshall International Center, a non-profit organization that oversees Marshall's Leesburg home as a museum and works to interpret Marshall's legacy.


• The Marshall Elementary School is in the Laurel Highlands School District, Uniontown, Pennsylvania.


• George C. Marshall Elementary School: located in Vancouver, Washington.


• The George C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany


• George Catlett Marshall Medal, awarded by the Association of the United States Army. Awarded to Bob Hope in 1972.


• The George C. Marshall Award, awarded to a citizen of Leesburg, Virginia who has demonstrated an exemplary commitment to the community.

See also

• German Marshall Fund


• George C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies


• George C. Marshall Foundation


• USS George C. Marshall (SSBN-654)

References

Further reading

• Cray, Ed. General of the Army: George C. Marshall, Soldier and Statesman. Norton, 1990. 847 pp.


• Gullan, Harold I. "Expectations of Infamy: Roosevelt and Marshall Prepare for War, 1938–41." Presidential Studies Quarterly Volume: 28#3 1998. pp. 510+ online edition
  


• Hopkins, Michael F. "President Harry Truman's Secretaries of State: Stettinius, Byrnes, Marshall and Acheson." Journal of Transatlantic Studies 6.3 (2008): 290-304.


• Jordan, Jonathan W., American Warlords: How Roosevelt's High Command Led America to Victory in World War II (NAL/Caliber 2015).


• Kurtz-Phelan, Daniel. The China Mission: George Marshall's Unfinished War, 1945-1947 (2018)


• May, Ernest R. "1947–48: When Marshall Kept the U.S. Out of War in China". Journal of Military History 2002 66(4): 1001–10.
  ISSN 0899-3718
  


• Levine, Steven I. "A New Look at American Mediation in the Chinese Civil War: the Marshall Mission and Manchuria." Diplomatic History 1979 3(4): 349–375.
  ISSN 0145-2096
  


• Parrish, Thomas. Roosevelt and Marshall: Partners in Politics and War. (1989). 608 pp.


• 
  Forrest Pogue, Viking, (1963–87) Four-volume authorized biography: complete text is online
  
  • George C. Marshall: Education of a General, 1880–1939
  
  
  • George C Marshall: Ordeal and Hope, 1939–1943
  
  
  • George C. Marshall: Organizer of Victory 1943–1945
  
  
  • George C. Marshall: Statesman 1945–1959
  
  


• 
  Roberts, Andrew (2008). Masters and Commanders. How Roosevelt, Churchill, Marshall and Alanbrooke won the war in the west. Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9969-3.
  Online free to borrow]


• Steele, Richard W. The First Offensive, 1942: Roosevelt, Marshall, and the Making of American Strategy. 1973. 239 pp.


• Stoler, Mark C. George C. Marshall: Soldier-Statesman of the American Century. (1989) 252pp


• Unger, Debi and Irwin with Stanley Hirshson. George Marshall: a Biography. Harper, 2014.
  ISBN 9780060577193
  

Primary sources

• 
  The Papers of George Catlett Marshall: (Larry I. Bland and Sharon Ritenour Stevens, eds.)
  
  • Vol. 1: The Soldierly Spirit," December 1880 – June 1939. (1981)
  
  
  • Vol. 2: "We Cannot Delay," July 1, 1939 – December 6, 1941. (1986)
  
  
  • Vol. 3: The Right Man for the Job, December 7, 1941 – May 31, 1943. (1991)
  
  
  • Vol. 4: "Aggressive and Determined Leadership," June 1, 1943 – December 31, 1944. (1996)
  
  
  • Vol. 5: "The Finest Soldier," January 1, 1945 – January 7, 1947. (2003)
  
  
  • Vol. 6: "The Whole World Hangs in the Balance," January 8, 1947 – September 30, 1949. (2012)
  
  
  • Vol. 7: "The Man of the Age," October 1, 1949 – October 16, 1959. (2016), xxxviii, 1046 pp.
  
  


• Bland, Larry; Jeans, Roger B.; and Wilkinson, Mark, ed. George C. Marshall's Mediation Mission to China, December 1945 – January 1947. Lexington, Va.: George C. Marshall Found., 1998. 661 pp.


• Marshall, George C. George C. Marshall: Interviews and Reminiscences for Forrest C. Pogue. Lexington, Va.: George C. Marshall Found., 1991. 698 pp. online edition
  


• George Catlett Marshall. Memoirs of My Services in the World War, 1917–1918 (1976)


• Marshall, George. The Infantry Journal Incorporated (1939). Infantry in Battle (PDF). Washington, DC: Garrett and Massey. ISBN 0-940328-04-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-02-21.
  

External links

Wikiquote has quotations related to: George Marshall

Wikimedia Commons has media related to George Marshall.

Wikisource has original works written by or about: George Marshall

• Brief biography at the official Nobel Prize site


• The Marshall Foundation


• George C. Marshall Center, Garmisch Germany


• The Marshall Plan Speech MP3


• The Marshall Films Collection


• Marshall Scholarships


• The Marshall Plan Speech


• The Marshall House (Dodona Manor)


• 
  "George C. Marshall: Soldier of Peace" (Smithsonian Institution)


• 
  Annotated bibliography for George Marshall from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
  


• 
  The Last Salute: Civil and Military Funeral, 1921–1969, Chapter XIX, General of the Army George C. Marshall, Special Military Funeral, 16 – October 20, 1959 by B. C. Mossman and M. W. Stark. United States Army Center of Military History, 1991. CMH Pub 90-1.


• The George C. Marshall Index at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum, Part 1 and Part 2
  


• 
  "General George C. Marshall and Vancouver". City of Vancouver Washington. Retrieved January 25, 2017.
  


• Task Force Marshall Information Page


• Joint Committee on The Investigation of Pearl Harbor, 79th Congress


• The short film Big Picture: The General Marshall Story is available for free download at the Internet Archive
  


• Rachel Yarnell Thompson's Marshall Biography: Marshall – A Statesman Shaped in the Crucible of War
  


• 
  George Marshall on IMDb


• 
  Newspaper clippings about George Marshall in the 20th Century Press Archives of the German National Library of Economics (ZBW)

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