Shamanism











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Anthropology of religion

Khagdaev1.JPG


Buryat shaman on Olkhon Island, Siberia














Social and cultural anthropology





Shamanism is a practice that involves a practitioner reaching altered states of consciousness in order to perceive and interact with what they believe to be a spirit world and channel these transcendental energies into this world.[1]


A shaman (/ˈʃɑːmən/ SHAH-men, /ˈʃæmən/ or /ˈʃmən/)[2] is someone who is regarded as having access to, and influence in, the world of benevolent and malevolent spirits, who typically enters into a trance state during a ritual, and practices divination and healing.[2] The word "shaman" probably originates from the Tungusic Evenki language of North Asia. According to ethnolinguist Juha Janhunen, "the word is attested in all of the Tungusic idioms" such as Negidal, Lamut, Udehe/Orochi, Nanai, Ilcha, Orok, Manchu and Ulcha, and "nothing seems to contradict the assumption that the meaning 'shaman' also derives from Proto-Tungusic" and may have roots that extend back in time at least two millennia.[3] The term was introduced to the west after Russian forces conquered the shamanistic Khanate of Kazan in 1552.


The term "shamanism" was first applied by Western anthropologists as outside observers of the ancient religion of the Turks and Mongols, as well as those of the neighbouring Tungusic and Samoyedic-speaking peoples. Upon observing more religious traditions across the world, some Western anthropologists began to also use the term in a very broad sense. The term was used to describe unrelated magico-religious practices found within the ethnic religions of other parts of Asia, Africa, Australasia and even completely unrelated parts of the Americas, as they believed these practices to be similar to one another.[4]


Mircea Eliade writes, "A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, will be: shamanism = 'technique of religious ecstasy'."[5] Shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the human world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments/illness by mending the soul. Alleviating traumas affecting the soul/spirit restores the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. The shaman also enters supernatural realms or dimensions to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community. Shamans may visit other worlds/dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of the human soul caused by foreign elements. The shaman operates primarily within the spiritual world, which in turn affects the human world. The restoration of balance results in the elimination of the ailment.[5]


Beliefs and practices that have been categorised this way as "shamanic" have attracted the interest of scholars from a wide variety of disciplines, including anthropologists, archaeologists, historians, religious studies scholars, philosophers and psychologists. Hundreds of books and academic papers on the subject have been produced, with a peer-reviewed academic journal being devoted to the study of shamanism. In the 20th century, many Westerners involved in the counter-cultural movement have created modern magico-religious practices influenced by their ideas of indigenous religions from across the world, creating what has been termed neoshamanism or the neoshamanic movement.[6] It has affected the development of many neopagan practices, as well as faced a backlash and accusations of cultural appropriation,[7] exploitation and misrepresentation when outside observers have tried to represent cultures they do not belong to.[8][9]




Contents





  • 1 Terminology

    • 1.1 Etymology


    • 1.2 Definitions



  • 2 Initiation and learning


  • 3 Roles


  • 4 Ecological aspect


  • 5 Economics


  • 6 Beliefs

    • 6.1 Soul and spirit concepts



  • 7 Practice

    • 7.1 Entheogens


    • 7.2 Music and songs


    • 7.3 Other practices


    • 7.4 Paraphernalia



  • 8 Academic study

    • 8.1 Cognitive, semiotic, hermeneutic approaches


    • 8.2 Ecological approaches, systems theory


    • 8.3 Hypotheses on origins



  • 9 Decline and revitalization / tradition-preserving movements


  • 10 Regional variations

    • 10.1 Asia

      • 10.1.1 Vietnam


      • 10.1.2 Hmong shamanism


      • 10.1.3 Indonesia


      • 10.1.4 Japan


      • 10.1.5 Korea


      • 10.1.6 Malaysia


      • 10.1.7 Mongolia


      • 10.1.8 Philippines


      • 10.1.9 Siberia and North Asia


      • 10.1.10 Central Asia

        • 10.1.10.1 Geographic influences on Central Asian shamanism


        • 10.1.10.2 Common shamanic practices and beliefs shared among Central Asians


        • 10.1.10.3 Shamanic rituals as artistic performance


        • 10.1.10.4 Costume and accessories


        • 10.1.10.5 Shamanism in Tsarist and Soviet Russia



      • 10.1.11 Other Asian traditions



    • 10.2 Europe


    • 10.3 Circumpolar shamanism

      • 10.3.1 Inuit and Yupik cultures


      • 10.3.2 Diversity, with similarities



    • 10.4 Americas

      • 10.4.1 North America


      • 10.4.2 Mesoamerica

        • 10.4.2.1 Maya


        • 10.4.2.2 Aztec



      • 10.4.3 South America

        • 10.4.3.1 Amazonia


        • 10.4.3.2 Mapuche


        • 10.4.3.3 Aymara


        • 10.4.3.4 Fuegians




    • 10.5 Oceania


    • 10.6 Africa


    • 10.7 Contemporary Western shamanism



  • 11 Criticism of the term


  • 12 See also


  • 13 Notes


  • 14 References


  • 15 Further reading


  • 16 External links




Terminology



Etymology




The earliest known depiction of a Siberian shaman, by the Dutch Nicolaes Witsen, 17th century. Witsen called him a "priest of the Devil" and drew clawed feet for the supposed demonic qualities.[10]


The word "shaman" probably originates from the Evenki word šamán, most likely from the southwestern dialect spoken by the Sym Evenki peoples.[11] The Tungusic term was subsequently adopted by Russians interacting with the indigenous peoples in Siberia. It is found in the memoirs of the exiled Russian churchman Avvakum.[12]


The word was brought to Western Europe in the late 17th century by the Dutch traveler Nicolaes Witsen, who reported his stay and journeys among the Tungusic and Samoyedic-speaking indigenous peoples of Siberia in his book Noord en Oost Tataryen (1692).[13]Adam Brand, a merchant from Lübeck, published in 1698 his account of a Russian embassy to China; a translation of his book, published the same year, introduced the word shaman to English speakers.[14]


The etymology of the Evenki word is sometimes connected to a Tungus root ša- "to know".[15][16] This has been questioned on linguistic grounds: "The possibility cannot be completely rejected, but neither should it be accepted without reservation since the assumed derivational relationship is phonologically irregular (note especially the vowel quantities)."[17] Other scholars assert that the word comes directly from the Manchu language, and as such would be the only commonly used English word that is a loan from this language.[18]


However, Mircea Eliade noted that the Sanskrit word śramaṇa, designating a wandering monastic or holy figure, has spread to many Central Asian languages along with Buddhism and could be the ultimate origin of the Tungusic word.[19] This proposal has been thoroughly critiqued since 1917. Ethnolinguist Juha Janhunen regards it as an "anachronism" and an "impossibility" that is nothing more than a "far-fetched etymology."[20]


21st-century anthropologist and archeologist Silvia Tomaskova argues that by the mid-1600s, many Europeans applied the Arabic term shaitan (meaning "devil") to the non-Christian practices and beliefs of indigenous peoples beyond the Ural Mountains.[21] She suggests that shaman may have entered the various Tungus dialects as a corruption of this term, and then been told to Christian missionaries, explorers, soldiers and colonial administrators with whom the people had increasing contact for centuries. Ethnolinguists did not develop as a discipline nor achieve contact with these communities until the late 19th century, and may have mistakenly "read backward" in time for the origin of this word.


A shamaness (female shaman) is sometimes called a shamanka, which is not an actual indigenous term but simply shaman plus the Russian suffix -ka (for feminine nouns).[22]



Definitions




A female shaman, probably Khakas, Russian Empire, 1908[23]


There is no single agreed-upon definition for the word "shamanism" among anthropologists. The English historian Ronald Hutton noted that by the dawn of the 21st century, there were four separate definitions of the term which appeared to be in use. The first of these uses the term to refer to "anybody who contacts a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness." The second definition limits the term to refer to those who contact a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness at the behest of others. The third definition attempts to distinguish shamans from other magico-religious specialists who are believed to contact spirits, such as "mediums", "witch doctors", "spiritual healers" or "prophets," by claiming that shamans undertake some particular technique not used by the others. Problematically, scholars advocating the third view have failed to agree on what the defining technique should be. The fourth definition identified by Hutton uses "shamanism" to refer to the indigenous religions of Siberia and neighboring parts of Asia.[24] According to the Golomt Center for Shamanic Studies, a Mongolian organisation of shamans, the Evenk word shaman would more accurately be translated as "priest".[25]



Initiation and learning


Shamans may be called through dreams or signs. However, shamanic powers may be inherited. In traditional societies shamanic training varies in length, but generally takes years.


Turner and colleagues[26] mention a phenomenon called shamanistic initiatory crisis, a rite of passage for shamans-to-be, commonly involving physical illness and/or psychological crisis. The significant role of initiatory illnesses in the calling of a shaman can be found in the detailed case history of Chuonnasuan, who was the last master shaman among the Tungus peoples in Northeast China.[27]


The wounded healer is an archetype for a shamanic trial and journey. This process is important to the young shaman. They undergo a type of sickness that pushes them to the brink of death. This happens for two reasons:


  • The shaman crosses over to the underworld. This happens so the shaman can venture to its depths to bring back vital information for the sick and the tribe.

  • The shaman must become sick to understand sickness. When the shaman overcomes their own sickness, they will hold the cure to heal all that suffer. This is the uncanny mark of the wounded healer.[28]


Roles





South Moluccan shaman exorcising evil spirits occupying children, Buru, Indonesia (1920)


Shamans claim to gain knowledge and the power to heal by entering into the spiritual world or dimension. Most shamans have dreams or visions that convey certain messages. The shaman may have or acquire many spirit guides, who often guide and direct the shaman in their travels in the spirit world. These spirit guides are always present within the shaman, although others encounter them only when the shaman is in a trance. The spirit guide energizes the shaman, enabling them to enter the spiritual dimension. The shaman heals within the spiritual dimension by returning 'lost' parts of the human soul from wherever they have gone. The shaman also cleanses excess negative energies, which confuse or pollute the soul.


Shamans act as mediators in their culture.[29][30] The shaman communicates with the spirits on behalf of the community, including the spirits of the deceased. The shaman communicates with both living and dead to alleviate unrest, unsettled issues, and to deliver gifts to the spirits.


Among the Selkups, the sea duck is a spirit animal. Ducks fly in the air and dive in the water. Thus ducks are believed to belong to both the upper world and the world below.[31] Among other Siberian peoples, these characteristics are attributed to water fowl in general.[32] The upper world is the afterlife primarily associated with deceased humans and is believed to be accessed by soul journeying through a portal in the sky. The lower world or "world below" is the afterlife primarily associated with animals and is believed to be accessed by soul journeying through a portal in the earth.[33] In shamanic cultures many animals are regarded as spirit animals.


Shamans perform a variety of functions depending upon their respective cultures;[34] healing,[35][36] leading a sacrifice,[37] preserving the tradition by storytelling and songs,[38]fortune-telling,[39] and acting as a psychopomp ("guide of souls").[40] A single shaman may fulfill several of these functions.[34]


The functions of a shaman may include either guiding to their proper abode the souls of the dead (which may be guided either one-at-a-time or in a cumulative group, depending on culture), and/or curing (healing) of ailments. The ailments may be either purely physical afflictions – such as disease, which may be cured by gifting, flattering, threatening, or wrestling the disease-spirit (sometimes trying all these, sequentially), and which may be completed by displaying a supposedly extracted token of the disease-spirit (displaying this, even if "fraudulent", is supposed to impress the disease-spirit that it has been, or is in the process of being, defeated, so that it will retreat and stay out of the patient's body), or else mental (including psychosomatic) afflictions – such as persistent terror (on account of a frightening experience), which may be likewise cured by similar methods. In most languages a different term other than the one translated "shaman" is usually applied to a religious official leading sacrificial rites ("priest"), or to a raconteur ("sage") of traditional lore; there may be more of an overlap in functions (with that of a shaman), however, in the case of an interpreter of omens or of dreams.


There are distinct types of shaman who perform more specialized functions. For example, among the Nani people, a distinct kind of shaman acts as a psychopomp.[41] Other specialized shamans may be distinguished according to the type of spirits, or realms of the spirit world, with which the shaman most commonly interacts. These roles vary among the Nenets, Enets, and Selkup shaman.[42][43]


The assistant of an Oroqen shaman (called jardalanin, or "second spirit") knows many things about the associated beliefs. He or she accompanies the rituals and interprets the behavior of the shaman.[44] Despite these functions, the jardalanin is not a shaman. For this interpretative assistant, it would be unwelcome to fall into trance.[45]



Ecological aspect


Among the Tucano people, a sophisticated system exists for environmental resources management and for avoiding resource depletion through overhunting. This system is conceptualized mythologically and symbolically by the belief that breaking hunting restrictions may cause illness. As the primary teacher of tribal symbolism, the shaman may have a leading role in this ecological management, actively restricting hunting and fishing. The shaman is able to "release" game animals, or their souls, from their hidden abodes.[46][47] The Piaroa people have ecological concerns related to shamanism.[48] Among the Inuit, shamans fetch the souls of game from remote places,[49][50] or soul travel to ask for game from mythological beings like the Sea Woman.[51]



Economics


The way shamans get sustenance and take part in everyday life varies across cultures. In many Inuit groups, they provide services for the community and get a "due payment" (cultures),[who?] believe the payment is given to the helping spirits[52] but these goods are only "welcome addenda." They are not enough to enable shamanizing as a full-time activity. Shamans live like any other member of the group, as a hunter or housewife. Due to the popularity of ayahuasca tourism in South America, there are practitioners in areas frequented by backpackers who make a living from leading ceremonies.[53][52]



Beliefs


There are many variations of shamanism throughout the world, but several common beliefs are shared by all forms of shamanism. Common beliefs identified by Eliade (1972)[5] are the following:


  • Spirits exist and they play important roles both in individual lives and in human society.

  • The shaman can communicate with the spirit world.

  • Spirits can be benevolent or malevolent.

  • The shaman can treat sickness caused by malevolent spirits.

  • The shaman can employ trance inducing techniques to incite visionary ecstasy and go on vision quests.

  • The shaman's spirit can leave the body to enter the supernatural world to search for answers.

  • The shaman evokes animal images as spirit guides, omens, and message-bearers.

  • The shaman can perform other varied forms of divination, scry, throw bones/runes, and sometimes foretell of future events.

Shamanism is based on the premise that the visible world is pervaded by invisible forces or spirits which affect the lives of the living.[54] Although the causes of disease lie in the spiritual realm, inspired by malicious spirits, both spiritual and physical methods are used to heal. Commonly, a shaman "enters the body" of the patient to confront the spiritual infirmity and heals by banishing the infectious spirit.


Many shamans have expert knowledge of medicinal plants native to their area, and an herbal treatment is often prescribed. In many places shamans learn directly from the plants, harnessing their effects and healing properties, after obtaining permission from the indwelling or patron spirits. In the Peruvian Amazon Basin, shamans and curanderos use medicine songs called icaros to evoke spirits. Before a spirit can be summoned it must teach the shaman its song.[54] The use of totemic items such as rocks with special powers and an animating spirit is common.


Such practices are presumably very ancient. Plato wrote in his Phaedrus that the "first prophecies were the words of an oak", and that those who lived at that time found it rewarding enough to "listen to an oak or a stone, so long as it was telling the truth".


Belief in witchcraft and sorcery, known as brujería in Latin America, exists in many societies. Other societies assert all shamans have the power to both cure and kill. Those with shamanic knowledge usually enjoy great power and prestige in the community, but they may also be regarded suspiciously or fearfully as potentially harmful to others.[55]


By engaging in their work, a shaman is exposed to significant personal risk, from the spirit world, from enemy shamans, or from the means employed to alter the shaman's state of consciousness. Shamanic plant materials can be toxic or fatal if misused. Spells are commonly used to protect against these dangers, and the use of more dangerous plants is often very highly ritualized.



Soul and spirit concepts



The variety of functions described above may seem like distinct tasks, but they may be united by underlying soul and spirit concepts.


Soul

This concept can generally explain more, seemingly unassociated phenomena in shamanism:[56][57][58]

Healing

This concept may be based closely on the soul concepts of the belief system of the people served by the shaman.[35] It may consist of retrieving the lost soul of the ill person.[59] See also the soul dualism concept.


Scarcity of hunted game

This problem can be solved by "releasing" the souls of the animals from their hidden abodes. Besides that, many taboos may prescribe the behavior of people towards game, so that the souls of the animals do not feel angry or hurt, or the pleased soul of the already killed prey can tell the other, still living animals, that they can allow themselves to be caught and killed.[60][61] For the ecological aspects of shamanistic practice, and related beliefs, see below.


Infertility of women

This problem can be cured by obtaining the soul of the expected child.

Spirits

Beliefs related to spirits can explain many different phenomena.[62] For example, the importance of storytelling, or acting as a singer, can be understood better if we examine the whole belief system. A person who can memorize long texts or songs, and play an instrument, may be regarded as the beneficiary of contact with the spirits (e.g. Khanty people).[63]


Practice



Generally, the shaman traverses the axis mundi and enters the spirit world by effecting a transition of consciousness, entering into an ecstatic trance, either autohypnotically or through the use of entheogens. The methods employed are diverse, and are often used together.



Entheogens



text

Flowering San Pedro, an entheogenic cactus that has been used for over 3,000 years.[64] Today the vast majority of extracted mescaline is from columnar cacti, not vulnerable peyote.[65]


An entheogen ("generating the divine within")[66] is a psychoactive substance used in a religious, shamanic, or spiritual context.[67] Entheogens have been used in a ritualized context for thousands of years; their religious significance is well established in anthropological and modern evidences. Examples of traditional entheogens include: peyote,[68]psilocybin and Amanita muscaria (fly agaric) mushrooms,[69]
uncured tobacco,[70]cannabis,[71]ayahuasca,[72]Salvia divinorum,[73]iboga,[74]
and
Mexican morning glory.


Some shamans observe dietary or customary restrictions particular to their tradition. These restrictions are more than just cultural. For example, the diet followed by shamans and apprentices prior to participating in an ayahuasca ceremony includes foods rich in tryptophan (a biosynthetic precursor to serotonin) as well as avoiding foods rich in tyramine, which could induce hypertensive crisis if ingested with MAOIs such as are found in ayahuasca brews as well as abstinence from alcohol or sex.[54]



Music and songs



Just like shamanism itself,[15] music and songs related to it in various cultures are diverse, far from being alike. In several instances, songs related to shamanism are intended to imitate natural sounds, via onomatopoeia.[75]


Sound mimesis in various cultures may serve other functions not necessarily related to shamanism: practical goals as luring game in the hunt;[76] or entertainment (Inuit throat singing).[76][77]



Other practices


  • Dancing

  • Singing


  • Icaros / Medicine Songs[54]

  • Vigils

  • Fasting

  • Sweat lodge

  • Vision quests

  • Mariri

  • Sword fighting / Bladesmithing


Paraphernalia




Raven Rattle, 19th century, Brooklyn Museum


Shamans may have various kinds of paraphernalia in different cultures.





Goldes shaman priest in his regalia



  • Drum – The drum is used by shamans of several peoples in Siberia, and many other cultures all over the world,[78][79] The beating of the drum allows the shaman to achieve an altered state of consciousness or to travel on a journey between the physical and spiritual worlds. Much fascination surrounds the role that the acoustics of the drum play to the shaman. Shaman drums are generally constructed of an animal-skin stretched over a bent wooden hoop, with a handle across the hoop.


Academic study





Sami noaidi with his drum



Cognitive, semiotic, hermeneutic approaches


A debated etymology of the word "shaman" is "one who knows",[16][80] implying, among other things, that the shaman is an expert in keeping together the multiple codes of the society, and that to be effective, shamans must maintain a comprehensive view in their mind which gives them certainty of knowledge.[15] According to this view, the shaman uses (and the audience understands) multiple codes, expressing meanings in many ways: verbally, musically, artistically, and in dance. Meanings may be manifested in objects such as amulets.[80] If the shaman knows the culture of his or her community well,[30][81][82] and acts accordingly, their audience will know the used symbols and meanings and therefore trust the shamanic worker.[82][83]


There are also semiotic, theoretical approaches to shamanism,[84][85][86] and examples of "mutually opposing symbols" in academic studies of Siberian lore, distinguishing a "white" shaman who contacts sky spirits for good aims by day, from a "black" shaman who contacts evil spirits for bad aims by night.[87] (Series of such opposing symbols referred to a world-view behind them. Analogously to the way grammar arranges words to express meanings and convey a world, also this formed a cognitive map).[15][88] Shaman's lore is rooted in the folklore of the community, which provides a "mythological mental map".[89][90]Juha Pentikäinen uses the concept "grammar of mind".[90][91]


Armin Geertz coined and introduced the hermeneutics,[92] or "ethnohermeneutics",[88] interpretation. Hoppál extended the term to include not only the interpretation of oral and written texts, but that of "visual texts as well (including motions, gestures and more complex ritual, and ceremonies performed for instance by shamans)".[93] Revealing the animistic views in shamanism, but also their relevance to the contemporary world, where ecological problems have validated paradigms of balance and protection.[90]


David Lewis-Williams explains the origins of shamanic practice, and some of its precise forms, through aspects of human consciousness evinced in cave art and LSD experiments alike.[94]



Ecological approaches, systems theory


Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff relates these concepts to developments in the ways that modern science (systems theory, ecology, new approaches in anthropology and archeology) treats causality in a less linear fashion.[46] He also suggests a cooperation of modern science and indigenous lore.[95]



Hypotheses on origins


Shamanic practices may originate as early as the Paleolithic, predating all organized religions,[96][97] and certainly as early as the Neolithic period.[97] The earliest known undisputed burial of a shaman (and by extension the earliest undisputed evidence of shamans and shamanic practices) dates back to the early Upper Paleolithic era (c. 30,000 BP) in what is now the Czech Republic.[98]


Sanskrit scholar and comparative mythologist Michael Witzel proposes that all of the world's mythologies, and also the concepts and practices of shamans, can be traced to the migrations of two prehistoric populations: the "Gondwana" type (of circa 65,000 years ago) and the "Laurasian" type (of circa 40,000 years ago).[99]


Early anthropological studies theorize that shamanism developed as a magic practice to ensure a successful hunt or gathering of food. Evidence in caves and drawings on walls support indications that shamanism started during the Paleolithic era. One such picture featured a half-animal, with the face and legs of a man, with antlers and a tail of a stag.[100]


In November 2008, researchers from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem announced the discovery of a 12,000-year-old site in Israel that is perceived as one of the earliest known shaman burials. The elderly woman had been arranged on her side, with her legs apart and folded inward at the knee. Ten large stones were placed on the head, pelvis and arms. Among her unusual grave goods were 50 complete tortoise shells, a human foot, and certain body parts from animals such as a cow tail and eagle wings. Other animal remains came from a boar, leopard, and two martens. "It seems that the woman … was perceived as being in a close relationship with these animal spirits", researchers noted. The grave was one of at least 28 graves at the site, located in a cave in lower Galilee and belonging to the Natufian culture, but is said to be unlike any other among the Epipaleolithic Natufians or in the Paleolithic period.[101]



Decline and revitalization / tradition-preserving movements


Shamanism is believed to be declining around the world, possibly due to other organised religious influences, like Christianity, that want people who practice shamanism to convert to their own system and doctrine. Another reason is western views of shamanism as 'primitive', 'superstitious', backward and outdated. Whalers who frequently interact with Inuit tribes are one source of this decline in that region.[102]




A shaman doctor of Kyzyl, 2005. Attempts are being made to preserve and revitalize Tuvan shamanism:[103] former authentic shamans have begun to practice again, and young apprentices are being educated in an organized way.[104]


In many areas, former shamans ceased to fulfill the functions in the community they used to, as they felt mocked by their own community,[105] or regarded their own past as deprecated and are unwilling to talk about it to an ethnographer.[106]


Moreover, besides personal communications of former shamans, folklore texts may narrate directly about a deterioration process. For example, a Buryat epic text details the wonderful deeds of the ancient "first shaman" Kara-Gürgän:[107] he could even compete with God, create life, steal back the soul of the sick from God without his consent. A subsequent text laments that shamans of older times were stronger, possessing capabilities like omnividence,[108] fortune-telling even for decades in the future, moving as fast as a bullet.[109]


In most affected areas, shamanic practices ceased to exist, with authentic shamans dying and their personal experiences dying with them. The loss of memories is not always lessened by the fact the shaman is not always the only person in a community who knows the beliefs and motives related to the local shaman-hood (laics know myths as well, among Barasana, even though less;[110] there are former shaman apprentices unable to complete the learning among Greenlandic Inuit peoples,[53] moreover, even laics can have trance-like experiences among the Inuit;[111] the assistant of a shaman can be extremely knowledgeable among Dagara).[44][45] Although the shaman is often believed and trusted precisely because s/he "accommodates" to the "grammar" of the beliefs of the community,[82] several parts of the knowledge related to the local shamanhood consist of personal experiences of the shaman (illness), or root in his/her family life (the interpretation of the symbolics of his/her drum),[112] thus, those are lost with his/her death. Besides that, in many cultures, the entire traditional belief system has become endangered (often together with a partial or total language shift), the other people of the community remembering the associated beliefs and practices (or the language at all) grew old or died, many folklore memories (songs, texts) were forgotten – which may threaten even such peoples who could preserve their isolation until the middle of the 20th century, like the Nganasan.[113]


Some areas could enjoy a prolonged resistance due to their remoteness.


  • Variants of shamanism among Inuit peoples were once a widespread (and very diverse) phenomenon, but today are rarely practiced, as well as already having been in decline among many groups, even while the first major ethnological research was being done,[114] e.g. among Polar Inuit, at the end of the 19th century, Sagloq, the last shaman who was believed to be able to travel to the sky and under the sea died – and many other former shamanic capacities were lost during that time as well, like ventriloquism and sleight-of-hand.[115]

  • The isolated location of Nganasan people allowed shamanism to be a living phenomenon among them even at the beginning of the 20th century,[116] the last notable Nganasan shaman's ceremonies could be recorded on film in the 1970s.[117]

After exemplifying the general decline even in the most remote areas, it should be noted that there are revitalization or tradition-preserving efforts as a response. Besides collecting the memories,[118] there are also tradition-preserving[119] and even revitalization efforts,[120] led by authentic former shamans (for example among Sakha people[121] and Tuvans).[104] However, according to Richard L. Allen, research & policy analyst for the Cherokee Nation, they are overwhelmed with fraudulent shamans ("plastic medicine people").[122] "One may assume that anyone claiming to be a Cherokee 'shaman, spiritual healer, or pipe-carrier', is equivalent to a modern day medicine show and snake-oil vendor."[123] One indicator of a plastic shaman might be someone who discusses "Native American spirituality" but does not mention any specific Native American tribe. The "New Age Frauds and Plastic Shamans" website discusses potentially plastic shamans.[124]


Besides tradition-preserving efforts, there are also neoshamanistic movements, these may differ from many traditional shamanistic practice and beliefs in several points.[125] Admittedly,[according to whom?] several traditional beliefs systems indeed have ecological considerations (for example, many Inuit peoples), and among Tukano people, the shaman indeed has direct resource-protecting roles, see details in section Ecological aspect.


Today, shamanism survives primarily among indigenous peoples. Shamanic practices continue today in the tundras, jungles, deserts, and other rural areas, and even in cities, towns, suburbs, and shantytowns all over the world. This is especially true for Africa and South America, where "mestizo shamanism" is widespread.



Regional variations



Asia



Vietnam



Shamanism is part of the Vietnamese religion of Đạo Mẫu. In Vietnam, this ritual practice is called Lên đồng or also known as hầu bóng, or hầu đồng, sessions involve a number of artistic elements, such as music, singing, dance and the use of costumes.



Hmong shamanism



The Hmong people, as an ancient people of China with a 5,000-year history, continue to maintain and practice its form of shamanism known as Ua Neeb in mainland Asia. At the end of the Vietnam War, some 300,000 Hmong have been settled across the globe. They have continued to practice Ua Neeb in various countries in North and South America, Europe and Australia. In the U.S., the Hmong shaman practitioner is known as Txiv Neeb has been licensed by many hospitals in California as being part of the medical health team to treat patients in hospital. This revival of Ua Neeb in the West has been brought great success and has been hailed in the media as "doctor for the disease, shaman for the soul".[citation needed]


Being a Hmong shaman represents a true vocation, chosen by the shaman God, Sivyis.[126]
The shaman's main job is to bring harmony to the individual, their family, and their community within their environment by performing various rituals (usually through trance).


Animal sacrifice has been part of the Hmong shamanic practice for the past 5,000 years. Contrary to the belief of many Westerners, the Hmong practice of using animals in shamanic practice is performed with great respect. After the Vietnam War, over 200,000 Hmong were resettled in the United States and shamanism is still part of the Hmong culture. Due the colliding of culture and the law, as Professor Alison Dundes Renteln, a political science professor at the University of Southern California and author of The Cultural Defense, a book that examines the influence of such cases on U.S. courts, once said, "We say that as a society we welcome diversity, and in fact that we embrace it ... In practice, it's not that easy".[127]


The Hmong believe that all things on Earth have a soul (or multiple souls), and those souls are treated as equal and can be considered interchangeable. When a person is sick due to his soul being lost, or captured by wild spirit, it is necessary to ask for and receive permission of that animal, whether it is a chicken, pig, dog, goat or any other animals required, to use its soul for an exchange with the afflicted person's soul for a period of 12 months. At the end of that period, during the Hmong New Year, the shaman would perform a special ritual to release the soul of that animal and send it off to the world beyond. As part of his service to mankind, the animal soul is sent off to be reincarnated into a higher form of animal, or even to become a member of a god's family (ua Fuab Tais Ntuj tus tub, tus ntxhais) to live a life of luxury, free of the suffering as an animal. Hence, being asked to perform this duty (what is known in the West as "animal sacrifice") is one of the greatest honors for that animal, to be able to serve mankind. The Hmong of southeast Guizhou will cover the rooster with a piece of red cloth and then hold it up to worship and sacrifice to the Heaven and the Earth before the Sacred cockfight.[128] In a 2010 trial of a Sheboygan Wisconsin Hmong who was charged with staging a cockfight, it was stated that the roosters were "kept for both food and religious purposes",[129] and the case was followed by an acquittal.[129]


In addition to the spiritual dimension, Hmong shaman attempt to treat many physical illnesses through use of the text of sacred words (khawv koob).



Indonesia





Indonesian dukun


Throughout the villages and towns of Indonesia, local healers known as dukun practice diverse activities from massage, bonesetting, midwivery, herbal medicine, spirit mediumship and divination.



Japan




Shamanism is part of the indigenous Ainu religion and Japanese religion of Shinto, although Shinto is distinct in that it is shamanism for an agricultural society. Since the early middle-ages Shinto has been influenced by and syncretized with Buddhism and other elements of continental East Asian culture. The book "Occult Japan: Shinto, Shamanism and the Way of the Gods" by Percival Lowell delves further into researching Japanese shamanism or Shintoism.[130] The book Japan Through the Looking Glass: Shaman to Shinto uncovers the extraordinary aspects of Japanese beliefs.[131][132]



Korea



Shamanism is still practiced in North and South Korea. In the south, shaman women are known as mudangs, while male shamans are referred to as baksoo mudangs.


A person can become a shaman through hereditary title or through natural ability. Shamans are consulted in contemporary society for financial and marital decisions.



Malaysia






Bobohizan of North Borneo, circa 1921.


Shamanism were also practiced among the Malay community in Malay Peninsula and indigenous people in Sabah and Sarawak. People who practice shamanism in the country are generally called as bomoh or pawang in the Peninsula.[133][134] In Sabah, the Bobohizan is the main shaman among the Kadazan-Dusun indigenous community.[135]



Mongolia



Mongolian classics, such as The Secret History of the Mongols, provide details about male and female shamans serving as exorcists, healers, rainmakers, oneiromancers, soothsayers, and officials. Shamanic practices continue in present-day Mongolian culture.[136][137][138][139][140]


The spiritual hierarchy in clan-based Mongolian society was complex. The highest group consisted of 99 tngri (55 of them benevolent or "white" and 44 terrifying or "black"), 77 natigai or "earth-mothers", besides others. The tngri were called upon only by leaders and great shamans and were common to all the clans. After these, three groups of ancestral spirits dominated. The "Lord-Spirits" were the souls of clan leaders to whom any member of a clan could appeal for physical or spiritual help. The "Protector-Spirits" included the souls of great shamans (ĵigari) and shamanesses (abĵiya). The "Guardian-Spirits" were made up of the souls of smaller shamans (böge) and shamanesses (idugan) and were associated with a specific locality (including mountains, rivers, etc.) in the clan's territory.[141]


In the 1990s, a form of Mongolian neo-shamanism was created which has given a more modern approach to shamanism. Among the Buryat Mongols, who live in Mongolia and Russia, the proliferation of shamans since 1990 is a core aspect of a larger struggle for the Buryats to reestablish their historical and genetic roots, as has been documented extensively by Ippei Shimamura, an anthropologist at the University of Shiga Prefecture in Japan.[142] Some Mongolian shamans are now making a business out of their profession and even have offices in the larger towns. At these businesses, a shaman generally heads the organization and performs services such as healing, fortunetelling, and solving all kinds of problems.[143] Although the initial enthusiasm for the revival of Mongol shamanism in the post-communist/post-1990 era led to an openness to all interested visitors, the situation has changed among those Mongols seeking to protect the essential ethnic or national basis of their practices. In recent years many associations of Mongol shamans have become wary of Western "core" or "neo" or "New Age" shamans and have restricted access to only to Mongols and Western scholars. One such event, organized by Jargalsaichan, the head of the Corporate Union of Mongolian Shamans, was the 21 June 2017 Ulaan Tergel (summer solstice) celebration held near midnight on the steppes about 20 km outside Ulaanbaatar. Although a private event, two Western psychologist scholars of shamanism, Richard Noll and Leonard George were allowed to observe, photograph and post video of the event to YouTube.[144]



Philippines





1922: a shaman of the Itneg people renewing an offering to the spirit (anito) of a warrior's kalasag shield


Shamans were highly respected members of the community in the ancient animistic religions of the Philippines. They were generally known as babaylan or baylan. In most Filipino ethnic groups, the shamans were almost always women. The few men who gain shaman status were usually asog or bayok, men who dressed as women and lived as women. They usually acquire their role either by inheriting it from an older shaman or after surviving a serious illness or a bout of insanity. Regardless of the method, full-fledged shamans are those who have acquired spirit familiars who serve as their guides into the spirit world.[145][146]


The main role of shamans were as spirit mediums. Through the use of their familiars and various rituals, they allow their bodies to be possessed by spirits (anito), thus facilitating communication between the spirit world and the material world. There were different ranks and specializations of shamans among different Filipino ethnic groups. Some specialized in healing, others in prophecy, others in creating charms and spells, and so on. The most powerful were usually believed to be sorcerers capable of controlling elemental spirits.[145][146]


Shamanistic practices in the Philippines were largely abandoned when the islands were converted to Christianity and Islam. Though there are still traces of it among modern folk healers and in isolated tribes.[145][146]



Siberia and North Asia






Ainu bear sacrifice. Japanese scroll painting, circa 1870.




Shaman in southern Siberia, 2014





Oroqen shaman, northern China


Siberia is regarded as the locus classicus of shamanism.[147] The area is inhabited by many different ethnic groups, and many of its peoples observe shamanistic practices, even in modern times. Many classical ethnographic sources of "shamanism" were recorded among Siberian peoples.


Manchu Shamanism is one of very few Shamanist traditions which held official status into the modern era, by becoming one of the imperial cults of the Qing dynasty of China (alongside Buddhism, Taoism and traditional Heaven worship). The Palace of Earthly Tranquility, one of the principal halls of the Forbidden City in Beijing, was partly dedicated to Shamanistic rituals. The ritual set-up is still preserved in situ today.


Among the Siberian Chukchis peoples, a shaman is interpreted as someone who is possessed by a spirit, who demands that someone assume the shamanic role for their people. Among the Buryat, there is a ritual known as shanar[148] whereby a candidate is consecrated as shaman by another, already-established shaman.


Among several Samoyedic peoples, shamanism was a living tradition also in modern times, especially at groups living in isolation, until recent times (Nganasans).[149] The last notable Nganasan shaman's seances could be recorded on film in the 1970s.[117][149]


When the People's Republic of China was formed in 1949 and the border with Russian Siberia was formally sealed, many nomadic Tungus groups (including the Evenki) that practiced shamanism were confined in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia. The last shaman of the Oroqen, Chuonnasuan (Meng Jinfu), died in October 2000.[150]


In many other cases, shamanism was in decline even at the beginning of the 20th century, for instance, among the Roma.[31]



Central Asia



Geographic influences on Central Asian shamanism

Geographical factors heavily influence the character and development of the religion, myths, rituals and epics of Central Asia. While in other parts of the world, religious rituals are primarily used to promote agricultural prosperity, here they were used to ensure success in hunting and breeding livestock. Animals are one of the most important elements of indigenous religion in Central Asia because of the role they play in the survival of the nomadic civilizations of the steppes as well as sedentary populations living on land not conducive to agriculture. Shamans wore animal skins and feathers and underwent transformations into animals during spiritual journeys. In addition, animals served as humans' guides, rescuers, ancestors, totems and sacrificial victims.[151] As a religion of nature, shamanism throughout Central Asia held particular reverence for the relations between sky, earth and water and believed in the mystical importance of trees and mountains. Shamanism in Central Asia also places a strong emphasis on the opposition between summer and winter, corresponding to the huge differences in temperature common in the region. The harsh conditions and poverty caused by the extreme temperatures drove Central Asian nomads throughout history to pursue militaristic goals against their sedentary neighbors. This military background can be seen in the reverence for horses and warriors within many indigenous religions.[152]



Common shamanic practices and beliefs shared among Central Asians

Central Asian shamans served as sacred intermediaries between the human and spirit world. In this role they took on tasks such as healing, divination, appealing to ancestors, manipulating the elements, leading lost souls and officiating public religious rituals. The shamanic séance served as a public display of the shaman's journey to the spirit world and usually involved intense trances, drumming, dancing, chanting, elaborate costumes, miraculous displays of physical strength, and audience involvement. The goal of these séances ranged from recovering the lost soul of a sick patient and divining the future to controlling the weather and finding a lost person or thing. The use of sleight-of-hand tricks, ventriloquism, and hypnosis were common in these rituals but did not explain the more impressive feats and actual cures accomplished by shamans.[153]


Shamans perform in a "state of ecstasy" deliberately induced by an effort of will. Reaching this altered state of consciousness required great mental exertion, concentration and strict self-discipline. Mental and physical preparation included long periods of silent meditation, fasting, and smoking. In this state, skilled shamans employ capabilities that the human organism cannot accomplish in the ordinary state. Shamans in ecstasy displayed unusual physical strength, the ability to withstand extreme temperatures, the bearing of stabbing and cutting without pain, and the heightened receptivity of the sense organs. Shamans made use of intoxicating substances and hallucinogens, especially mukhomor mushrooms and alcohol, as a means of hastening the attainment of ecstasy.[154]


The use of purification by fire is an important element of the shamanic tradition dating back as early as the 6th century. People and things connected with the dead had to be purified by passing between fires. These purifications were complex exorcisms while others simply involved the act of literally walking between two fires while being blessed by the shaman. Shamans in literature and practice were also responsible for using special stones to manipulate weather. Rituals are performed with these stones to attract rain or repel snow, cold or wind. This "rain-stone" was used for many occasions including bringing an end to drought as well as producing hailstorms as a means of warfare.[155]
Despite distinctions between various types of shamans and specific traditions, there is a uniformity throughout the region manifested in the personal beliefs, objectives, rituals, symbols and the appearance of shamans.



Shamanic rituals as artistic performance

The shamanic ceremony is both a religious ceremony and an artistic performance. The fundamental purpose of the dramatic displays seen during shamanic ceremonies is not to draw attention or to create a spectacle for the audience as many Westerners have come to believe, but to lead the tribe in a solemn ritualistic process.


In general, all performances consist of four elements: dance, music, poetry and dramatic or mimetic action. The use of these elements serves the purpose of outwardly expressing his mystical communion with nature and the spirits for the rest of the tribe. The true shaman can make the journey to the spirit world at any time and any place, but shamanic ceremonies provide a way for the rest of the tribe to share in this religious experience. The shaman changes his voice mimetically to represent different persons, gods, and animals while his music and dance change to show his progress in the spirit world and his different spiritual interactions. Many shamans practice ventriloquism and make use of their ability to accurately imitate the sounds of animals, nature, humans and other noises in order to provide the audience with the ambiance of the journey. Elaborate dances and recitations of songs and poetry are used to make the shamans spiritual adventures into a matter of living reality to his audience.[156]



Costume and accessories

The shaman's attire varies throughout the region but his chief accessories are his coat, cap, and tambourine or drum. The transformation into an animal is an important aspect of the journey into the spirit world undertaken during shamanic rituals so the coat is often decorated with birds feathers and representations of animals, coloured handkerchiefs, bells and metal ornaments. The cap is usually made from the skin of a bird with the feathers and sometimes head, still attached.[157]


The drum or tambourine is the essential means of communicating with spirits and enabling the shaman to reach altered states of consciousness on his journey. The drum, representing the universe in epitome, is often divided into equal halves to represent the earth and lower realms. Symbols and natural objects are added to the drum representing natural forces and heavenly bodies.[158]



Shamanism in Tsarist and Soviet Russia

In Soviet Central Asia, the Soviet government persecuted and denounced shamans as practitioners of fraudulent medicine and perpetuators of outdated religious beliefs in the new age of science and logic. The radical transformations occurring after the October Socialist Revolution led to a sharp decrease in the activity of shamans. Shamans represented an important component in the traditional culture of Central Asians and because of their important role in society, Soviet organizations and campaigns targeted shamans in their attempt to eradicate traditional influences in the lives of the indigenous peoples. Along with persecution under the tsarist and Soviet regimes, the spread of Christianity and Islam had a role in the disintegration of native faith throughout central Asia. Poverty, political instability and foreign influence are also detrimental to a religion that requires publicity and patronage to flourish.
By the 1980s most shamans were discredited in the eyes of their people by Soviet officials and physicians.[159]



Other Asian traditions



"Jhakri" is the common name used for shamans in Sikkim, India and Nepal. They exist in the Limbu, Sunuwar, Rai, Sherpa, Kami, Tamang, Gurung and Lepcha communities.[160] They are inflluenced by Hinduism, Tibetan Buddhism, Mun and Bön rites.[161]


Shamanism is still widely practiced in the Ryukyu Islands (Okinawa, Japan), where shamans are known as 'Noro' (all women) and 'Yuta'. 'Noro' generally administer public or communal ceremonies while 'Yuta' focus on civil and private matters. Shamanism is also practiced in a few rural areas in Japan proper. It is commonly believed that the Shinto religion is the result of the transformation of a shamanistic tradition into a religion.
Forms of practice vary somewhat in the several Ryukyu islands, so that there is, for example, a distinct Miyako shamanism.[162]


Shamanism practices seem to have been preserved in the Catholic religious traditions of aborigines in Taiwan.[163]


In Vietnam, shamans conduct rituals in many of the religious traditions that co-mingle in the majority and minority populations. In their rituals, music, dance, special garments and offerings are part of the performance that surround the spirit journey.[164]



Europe





Sami shamanic drum in the Arktikum Science Museum, in Rovaniemi, Finland







Some of the prehistoric peoples who once lived in Siberia have dispersed and migrated into other regions, bringing aspects of their cultures with them. For example, many Uralic peoples live now outside Siberia, however the original location of the Proto-Uralic peoples (and its extent) is debated. Combined phytogeographical and linguistic considerations (distribution of various tree species and the presence of their names in various Uralic languages) suggest that this area was north of Central Ural Mountains and on lower and middle parts of Ob River.[165] The ancestors of Hungarian people or Magyars have wandered from their ancestral proto-Uralic area to the Pannonian Basin. Shamanism has played an important role in Turko-Mongol mythology: Tengriism – the major ancient belief among Xiongnu, Mongol and Turkic peoples, Magyars and Bulgars – incorporates elements of shamanism.[166] Shamanism is no more a living practice among Hungarians, but remnants have been reserved as fragments of folklore, in folktales, customs.[167]


Some historians of the Late Middle Ages and Early Modern period have argued that traces of shamanistic traditions can be seen in the popular folk belief of this period. Most prominent among these was the Italian Carlo Ginzburg, who claimed shamanistic elements in the benandanti custom of 16th century Italy,[168] the Hungarian Éva Pócs, who identified them in the táltos tradition of Hungary,[169] and the Frenchman Claude Lecouteux, who has argued that Medieval traditions regarding the soul are based on earlier shamanic ideas.[170] Ginzburg in particular has argued that some of these traditions influenced the conception of witchcraft in Christendom, in particular ideas regarding the witches' sabbath, leading to the events of the witch trials in the Early Modern period.[171] Some of these Italian traditions survived into the 20th and early 21st centuries, allowing Italian-American sociologist Sabina Magliocco to make a brief study of them (2009).[172]



Circumpolar shamanism



Inuit and Yupik cultures





Yup'ik shaman exorcising evil spirits from a sick boy, Nushagak, Alaska, 1890s.[173]



Eskimo groups inhabit a huge area stretching from Eastern Siberia through Alaska and Northern Canada (including Labrador Peninsula) to Greenland. Shamanistic practice and beliefs have been recorded at several parts of this vast area crosscutting continental borders.[111][61][174]




When speaking of "shamanism" in various Eskimo groups, we must remember that (as mentioned above) the term "shamanism" can cover certain characteristics of various different cultures.[15]Mediation is regarded often as an important aspect of shamanism in general.[175] Also in most Eskimo groups, the role of mediator is known well:[176] the person filling it in is actually believed to be able to contact the beings who populate the belief system. Term "shaman" is used in several English-language publications also in relation to Eskimos.[111][174][177][178] Also the alignalghi (IPA: [aˈliɣnalʁi]) of the Asian Eskimos is translated as "shaman" in the Russian[179] and English[176] literature.


The belief system assumes specific links between the living people, the souls of hunted animals, and those of dead people.[180] The soul concepts of several groups are specific examples of soul dualism (showing variability in details in the various cultures).


Unlike the majority of shamanisms the careers of most Eskimo shamans lack the motivation of force: becoming a shaman is usually a result of deliberate consideration, not a necessity forced by the spirits.[53]



Diversity, with similarities


Another possible concern: do the belief systems of various Eskimo groups have such common features at all, that would justify any mentioning them together? There was no political structure above the groups, their languages were relative, but differed more or less, often forming language continuums.[181]


There are similarities in the cultures of the Eskimo groups[182][183][184][185][186] together with diversity, far from homogeneity.[187]


The Russian linguist Menovshikov (Меновщиков), an expert of Siberian Yupik and Sireniki Eskimo languages (while admitting that he is not a specialist in ethnology)[188] mentions, that the shamanistic seances of those Siberian Yupik and Sireniki groups he has seen have many similarities to those of Greenland Inuit groups described by Fridtjof Nansen,[189] although a large distance separates Siberia and Greenland. There may be certain similarities also in Asiatic groups with North American ones.[190] Also the usage of a specific shaman's language is documented among several Eskimo groups, used mostly for talking to spirits.[191][192] Also the Ungazighmiit (belonging to Siberian Yupiks) had a special allegoric usage of some expressions.[193]


The local cultures showed great diversity. The myths concerning the role of shaman had several variants, and also the name of their protagonists varied from culture to culture. For example, a mythological figure, usually referred to in the literature by the collective term Sea Woman, has factually many local names: Nerrivik "meat dish" among Polar Inuit, Nuliayuk "lubricous" among Netsilingmiut, Sedna "the nether one" among Baffin Land Inuit.[194] Also the soul conceptions, e.g. the details of the soul dualism showed great variability, ranging from guardianship to a kind of reincarnation. Conceptions of spirits or other beings had also many variants (see e.g. the tupilaq concept).[195]



Americas



North America






Native American "conjuror" in a 1590 colonial engraving


Native American and First Nations cultures have diverse religious beliefs and there was never one universal Native American religion or spiritual system. Although many Native American cultures have traditional healers, ritualists, singers, mystics, lore-keepers and Medicine people, none of them ever used, or use, the term "shaman" to describe these religious leaders. Rather, like other indigenous cultures the world over, their spiritual functionaries are described by words in their own languages, and in many cases are not taught to outsiders.


Many of these indigenous religions have been grossly misrepresented by outside observers and anthropologists, even to the extent of superficial or seriously mistaken anthropological accounts being taken as more authentic than the accounts of actual members of the cultures and religions in question. Often these accounts suffer from "Noble Savage"-type romanticism and racism. Some contribute to the fallacy that Native American cultures and religions are something that only existed in the past, and which can be mined for data despite the opinions of Native communities.[196]


Not all Indigenous communities have roles for specific individuals who mediate with the spirit world on behalf of the community. Among those that do have this sort of religious structure, spiritual methods and beliefs may have some commonalities, though many of these commonalities are due to some nations being closely related, from the same region, or through post-Colonial governmental policies leading to the combining of formerly independent nations on reservations. This can sometimes lead to the impression that there is more unity among belief systems than there was in antiquity.


With the arrival of European settlers and colonial administration, the practice of Native American traditional beliefs was discouraged and Christianity was imposed[197] upon the indigenous people. In most communities, the traditions were not completely eradicated, but rather went underground, and were practiced secretly until the prohibitive laws were repealed.[198]


Up until and during the last hundred years, thousands of Native American and First Nations children from many different communities were sent into the Canadian Indian residential school system, and Indian boarding schools in an effort to destroy tribal languages, cultures and beliefs. The Trail of Tears, in the US, forced Native Americans to relocate from their traditional homes. Canadian laws enacted in 1982, and henceforth, have attempted to reverse previous attempts at extinguishing Native culture.[199]



Mesoamerica






Maya priest performing a healing ritual at Tikal.



Maya



Aztec



South America




Body of Ndyuka Maroon child brought before medicine man, Suriname River, Suriname, South America


  • The Urarina of the Peruvian Amazon have an elaborate cosmological system predicated on the ritual consumption of ayahuasca, which is a key feature of their society.[200]


  • Santo Daime and União do Vegetal ( abbreviated to UDV) are syncretic religions with which use an entheogen called ayahuasca in an attempt to connect with the spirit realm and receive divine guidance.[54]


Amazonia



A Shuara Shaman in Ecuador Amazonian forest, 2006





Urarina shaman, 1988


In the Peruvian Amazon basin and north coastal regions of the country, the healers are known as curanderos. Ayahuasqueros are Peruvians who specialize in the use of ayahuasca.[200]Ayahuasqueros have become popular among Western spiritual seekers, who claim that the ayauasqueros and their ayahuasca brews have cured them of everything from depression to addiction to cancer.[54]


In addition to curanderos use of ayahuasca and their ritualized ingestion of mescaline-bearing San Pedro cactuses (Trichocereus pachanoi) for the divination and diagnosis of sorcery, north-coastal shamans are famous throughout the region for their intricately complex and symbolically dense healing altars called mesas (tables).[201]Sharon (1993) has argued that the mesas symbolize the dualistic ideology underpinning the practice and experience of north-coastal shamanism.[202] For Sharon, the mesas are the, "physical embodiment of the supernatural opposition between benevolent and malevolent energies" (Dean 1998: 61).[203]


In several tribes living in the Amazon rainforest, the spiritual leaders also act as managers of scarce ecological resources[46][48][95] The rich symbolism in Tukano culture has been documented in field works[46][204][205] even in the last decades of the 20th century.


The yaskomo of the Waiwai is believed to be able to perform a soul flight. The soul flight can serve several functions:


  • healing

  • flying to the sky to consult cosmological beings (the moon or the brother of the moon) to get a name for a newborn baby

  • flying to the cave of peccaries' mountains to ask the father of peccaries for abundance of game

  • flying deep down in a river, to achieve the help of other beings.

Thus, a yaskomo is believed to be able to reach sky, earth, and water.[206]



Mapuche

Among the Mapuche people of Chile, Machi is usually a woman who serves the community by performing ceremonies to cure diseases, ward off evil, influence the weather and harvest, and by practicing other forms of healing such as herbalism.



Aymara

For the Aymara people of South America the Yatiri is a healer who heals the body and the soul, they serve the community and do the rituals for Pachamama.


Part of the healing power attributed to shamanic practices depends of the use of plant alkaloids taken during the therapeutic sessions.[207]



Fuegians



Although Fuegians (the indigenous peoples of Tierra del Fuego) were all hunter-gatherers,[208] they did not share a common culture. The material culture was not homogenous, either: the big island and the archipelago made two different adaptations possible. Some of the cultures were coast-dwelling, others were land-oriented.[209][210]


Both Selk'nam and Yámana had persons filling in shaman-like roles.
The Selk'nams believed their /xon/s to have supernatural capabilities, e.g. to control weather.[211][212] The figure of /xon/ appeared in myths, too.[213] The Yámana /jekamuʃ/[214] corresponds to the Selknam /xon/.[215]



Oceania



On the island of Papua New Guinea, indigenous tribes believe that illness and calamity are caused by dark spirits, or masalai, which cling to a person's body and poison them. Shamans are summoned in order to purge the unwholesome spirits from a person.[216][217] Shamans also perform rainmaking ceremonies and can allegedly improve a hunter's ability to catch animals.[218]


In Australia various aboriginal groups refer to their shamans as "clever men" and "clever women" also as kadji. These aboriginal shamans use maban or mabain, the material that is believed to give them their purported magical powers. Besides healing, contact with spiritual beings, involvement in initiation and other secret ceremonies, they are also enforcers of tribal laws, keepers of special knowledge and may "hex" to death one who breaks a social taboo by singing a song only known to the "clever men".



Africa






Sangoma/Inyanga performing a traditional baptism on a baby in order to protect the spirit of the baby, Johannesburg, South Africa


In Mali, Dogon sorcerers (both male and female) communicate with a spirit named Amma, who advises them on healing and divination practices.


The classical meaning of shaman as a person who, after recovering from a mental illness (or insanity) takes up the professional calling of socially recognized religious practitioner, is exemplified among the Sisala (of northern Gold Coast) : "the fairies "seized" him and made him insane for several months. Eventually, though, he learned to control their power, which he now uses to divine."[219]


The term sangoma, as employed in Zulu and congeneric languages, is effectively equivalent to shaman. Sangomas are highly revered and respected in their society, where illness is thought to be caused by witchcraft,[220] pollution (contact with impure objects or occurrences), bad spirits, or the ancestors themselves,[221] either malevolently, or through neglect if they are not respected, or to show an individual her calling to become a sangoma (thwasa).[222] For harmony between the living and the dead, vital for a trouble-free life, the ancestors must be shown respect through ritual and animal sacrifice.[223]


The term inyanga also employed by the Nguni cultures is equivalent to 'herbalist' as used by the Zulu people and a variation used by the Karanga,[224] among whom remedies (locally known as muti) for ailments are discovered by the inyanga being informed in a dream, of the herb able to effect the cure and also of where that herb is to be found. The majority of the herbal knowledge base is passed down from one inyanga to the next, often within a particular family circle in any one village.


Shamanism is known among the Nuba of Kordofan in Sudan.[225][226]



Contemporary Western shamanism



There is an endeavor in some contemporary occult and esoteric circles to reinvent shamanism in a modern form, often drawing from core shamanism – a set of beliefs and practices synthesized by Michael Harner – centered on the use of ritual drumming and dance, and Harner's interpretations of various indigenous religions. Harner has faced criticism for taking pieces of diverse religions out of their cultural contexts and synthesising a set of universal shamanic techniques. Some neoshamans focus on the ritual use of entheogens,[227] and also embrace the philosophies of chaos magic[citation needed] while others (such as Jan Fries)[228] have created their own forms of shamanism.


European-based neoshamanic traditions are focused upon the researched or imagined traditions of ancient Europe, where many mystical practices and belief systems were suppressed by the Christian church. Some of these practitioners express a desire to practice a system that is based upon their own ancestral traditions. Some anthropologists and practitioners have discussed the impact of such neoshamanism as "giving extra pay" (Harvey, 1997 and elsewhere) to indigenous American traditions, particularly as many pagan or heathen shamanic practitioners do not call themselves shamans, but instead use specific names derived from the European traditions – they work within such as völva or seidkona (seid-woman) of the sagas (see Blain 2002, Wallis 2003).


Many spiritual seekers travel to Peru to work with ayahuasqueros, shamans who engage in the ritual use of ayahuasca, a psychedelic tea which has been documented to cure everything from depression to addiction. When taking ayahuasca, participants frequently report meeting spirits, and receiving divine revelations.[54] Shamanistic techniques have also been used in New Age therapies which use enactment and association with other realities as an intervention.[229][230]



Criticism of the term





A tableau presenting figures of various cultures filling in mediator-like roles, often being termed as "shaman" in the literature. The tableau presents the diversity of this concept.


The anthropologist Alice Kehoe criticizes the term "shaman" in her book Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking. Part of this criticism involves the notion of cultural appropriation.[7] This includes criticism of New Age and modern Western forms of shamanism, which, according to Kehoe, misrepresent or dilute indigenous practices. Alice Kehoe also believes that the term reinforces racist ideas such as the Noble Savage.


Kehoe is highly critical of Mircea Eliade's work on shamanism as an invention synthesized from various sources unsupported by more direct research. To Kehoe, citing that ritualistic practices (most notably drumming, trance, chanting, entheogens and hallucinogens, spirit communication and healing) as being definitive of shamanism is poor practice. Such citations ignore the fact that those practices exist outside of what is defined as shamanism and play similar roles even in non-shamanic cultures (such as the role of chanting in Judeo-Christian and Islamic rituals) and that in their expression are unique to each culture that uses them. Such practices cannot be generalized easily, accurately, or usefully into a global religion of shamanism. Because of this, Kehoe is also highly critical of the hypothesis that shamanism is an ancient, unchanged, and surviving religion from the Paleolithic period.[7]


Anthropologist Mihály Hoppál also discusses whether the term "shamanism" is appropriate. He notes that for many readers, "-ism" implies a particular dogma, like Buddhism or Judaism. He recommends using the term "shamanhood"[231] or "shamanship"[232] (a term used in old Russian and German ethnographic reports at the beginning of the 20th century) for stressing the diversity and the specific features of the discussed cultures. He believes that this places more stress on the local variations[15] and emphasizes that shamanism is not a religion of sacred dogmas, but linked to the everyday life in a practical way.[233] Following similar thoughts, he also conjectures a contemporary paradigm shift.[231]Piers Vitebsky also mentions that, despite really astonishing similarities, there is no unity in shamanism. The various, fragmented shamanistic practices and beliefs coexist with other beliefs everywhere. There is no record of pure shamanistic societies (although, as for the past, their existence is not impossible).[234] Norwegian social anthropologist Hakan Rydving has likewise argued for the abandonment of the terms "shaman" and "shamanism" as "scientific illusions."[235]


Dulam Bumochir has affirmed the above critiques of "shamanism" as a Western construct created for comparative purposes and, in an extensive article, has documented the role of Mongols themselves, particularly "the partnership of scholars and shamans in the reconstruction of shamanism" in post-1990/post-communist Mongolia.[236] This process has also been documented by Swiss anthropologist Judith Hangartner in her landmark study of Darhad shamans in Mongolia.[237] Historian Karena Kollmar-Polenz argues that the social construction and reification of shamanism as a religious "other" actually began with the 18th century writings of Tibetan Buddhist monks in Mongolia and later "probably influenced the formation of European discourse on Shamanism".[238]



See also



  • Divine madness#Shamanism

  • Folk healer

  • Folk magic

  • Itako

  • Neoshamanism

  • Neuroanthropology

  • Neurotheology

  • Paganism

  • Plastic shaman

  • Prehistoric medicine

  • Seiðr

  • Soul catcher

  • Spirit spouse

  • Tlamatini

  • Zduhać



Notes




  1. ^ Hoppál 1987. p. 76.


  2. ^ ab "Definition of Shaman by Oxford Dictionaries"..mw-parser-output cite.citationfont-style:inherit.mw-parser-output qquotes:"""""""'""'".mw-parser-output code.cs1-codecolor:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-free abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-registration abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-subscription abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registrationcolor:#555.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration spanborder-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-errordisplay:none;font-size:100%.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-errorfont-size:100%.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-formatfont-size:95%.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-leftpadding-left:0.2em.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-rightpadding-right:0.2em


  3. ^ Juha Janhunen, Siberian shamanistic terminology, Suomalais-ugrilaisen Seuran toimituksia/ Memoires de la Société finno-ougrienne, 1986, 194: 97–98


  4. ^ Alberts, Thomas (2015). Shamanism, Discourse, Modernity. Farnham: Ashgate. pp. 73–79. ISBN 978-1472439864.


  5. ^ abc Mircea Eliade, Shamanism, Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy, Bollingen Series LXXVI, Princeton University Press 1972, pp. 3–7.


  6. ^ Gredig, Florian (2009). Finding New Cosmologies. Berlin: Lit Verlag Dr. W. Hopf.


  7. ^ abc Kehoe, Alice Beck (2000). Shamans and religion : an anthropological exploration in critical thinking. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press. ISBN 978-1577661627.


  8. ^ Wernitznig, Dagmar, Europe's Indians, Indians in Europe: European Perceptions and Appropriations of Native American Cultures from Pocahontas to the Present. University Press of America, 2007: p.132. "What happens further in the Plastic Shaman's [fictitious] story is highly irritating from a perspective of cultural hegemony. The Injun elder does not only willingly share their spirituality with the white intruder but, in fact, must come to the conclusion that this intruder is as good an Indian as they are themselves. Regarding Indian spirituality, the Plastic Shaman even out-Indians the actual ones. The messianic element, which Plastic Shamanism financially draws on, is installed in the Yoda-like elder themselves. They are the ones – while melodramatically parting from their spiritual offshoot – who urge the Plastic Shaman to share their gift with the rest of the world. Thus Plastic Shamans wipe their hands clean of any megalomaniac or missionizing undertones. Licensed by the authority of an Indian elder, they now have every right to spread their wisdom, and if they make (quite more than) a buck with it, then so be it. The neocolonial ideology attached to this scenario leaves less room for cynicism."


  9. ^ G. Hobson, "The Rise of the White Shaman as a New Version of Cultural Imperialism." in: Hobson, Gary, ed. The Remembered Earth. Albuquerque, NM: Red Earth Press; 1978: 100–08.


  10. ^ Hutton 2001. p. 32.


  11. ^ Juha Janhunan, Siberian shamanistic terminology, Memoires de la Societe finno-ougrienne 1986, 194:97.


  12. ^ Written before 1676, first printed in 1861; see Hutton 2001. p. vii.


  13. ^ Hutton 2001, p. 32.


  14. ^ Adam Brand, Driejaarige Reize naar China, Amsterdam 1698; transl. A Journal of an Ambassy, London 1698; see Laufer B., "Origin of the Word Shaman," American Anthropologist, 19 (1917): 361–71 and Bremmer J., "Travelling souls? Greek shamanism reconsidered", in Bremmer J.N. (ed.), The Rise and Fall of the Afterlife, London: Routledge, 2002, pp. 7–40. (PDF Archived 2013-12-02 at the Wayback Machine.)


  15. ^ abcdef Hoppál 2005: 15


  16. ^ ab Diószegi 1962: 13


  17. ^ Januhnan, 1986: 98.


  18. ^ Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1996). The Manchus. Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 978-1557865601.


  19. ^ Eliade, Mircea (1989). Shamanism. Arkana Books. p. 495.


  20. ^ Janhunen, 1986:98.


  21. ^ Tomaskova, 2013, 76–78, 104–105.


  22. ^ Chadwick, Hector Munro; Chadwick, Nora Kershaw (1968). The Growth of Literature. The University Press. p. 13. The terms shaman and the Russianised feminine form shamanka, 'shamaness', 'seeress', are in general use to denote any persons of the native professional class among the heathen Siberians and Tatars generally, and there can be no that they have come to be applied to a large number of different classes of people.


  23. ^ Hoppál, Mihály (2005). Sámánok Eurázsiában (in Hungarian). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. ISBN 978-9630582957. pp. 77, 287; Znamensky, Andrei A. (2005). "Az ősiség szépsége: altáji török sámánok a szibériai regionális gondolkodásban (1860–1920)". In Molnár, Ádám. Csodaszarvas. Őstörténet, vallás és néphagyomány. Vol. I (in Hungarian). Budapest: Molnár Kiadó. pp. 117–34. ISBN 978-9632182001., p. 128


  24. ^ Hutton 2001. pp. vii–viii.


  25. ^ "Circle of Tengerism". Archived from the original on 2013-01-26.


  26. ^ Turner et al., p. 440


  27. ^ Noll & Shi 2004 (avail. online)


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  29. ^ Hoppál 2005: 45


  30. ^ ab Boglár 2001: 24


  31. ^ ab Hoppál 2005: 94


  32. ^ Vitebsky 1996: 46


  33. ^ Ingerman, Sandra (2004). Shamanic Journeying: A Beginner's Guide. Sounds True. ISBN 978-1591799436.


  34. ^ ab Hoppál 2005: 25


  35. ^ ab Sem, Tatyana. "Shamanic Healing Rituals". Russian Museum of Ethnography.


  36. ^ Hoppál 2005: 27–28


  37. ^ Hoppál 2005: 28–33


  38. ^ Hoppál 2005: 37


  39. ^ Hoppál 2005: 34–35


  40. ^ Hoppál 2005: 36


  41. ^ Hoppál 2005: 61–64


  42. ^ Hoppál 2005: 87–95


  43. ^ "Shamanism in Siberia: Part III. Religion: Chapter IX. Types of Shamans". Retrieved 6 June 2015.


  44. ^ ab Noll & Shi 2004: 10, footnote 10 (see online)


  45. ^ ab Noll & Shi 2004: 8–9 (see online)


  46. ^ abcd Reichel-Dolmatoff 1997


  47. ^ Vitebsky 1996: 107


  48. ^ ab Boglár 2001: 26


  49. ^ Merkur 1985: 5


  50. ^ Vitebsky 1996: 108


  51. ^ Kleivan & Sonne: 27–28


  52. ^ ab Merkur 1985: 3


  53. ^ abc Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 24


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  56. ^ Merkur 1985: 4


  57. ^ Vitebsky 1996: 11–14, 107


  58. ^ Hoppál 2005: 27, 30, 36


  59. ^ Hoppál 2005: 27


  60. ^ Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 7, 19–21


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  63. ^ Hoppál 2005: 99


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  70. ^ Wilbert, Johannes (1987). Tobacco and Shamanism in South America. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300057904.


  71. ^ McClain, Matthew Sean (29 July 2016). Herb & Shaman: Recreating the Cannabis Mythos (PhD). Pacifica Graduate Institute. This study considers the archetypal role of Cannabis in many agricultural rites and shamanic traditions.


  72. ^ Labate, Beatriz Caiuby; Cavnar, Clancy, eds. (2014). Ayahuasca Shamanism in the Amazon and Beyond. Oxford ritual studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199341191.


  73. ^ Dalgamo, Phil (June 2007). "Subjective Effects of Salvia Divinorum". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 39 (2): 143–49. Mazatec curanderos use Salvia for divinatory rituals and healing ceremonies.


  74. ^ Mahop, Tonye; Uden, Alex; Asaha, Stella; Ndam, Nouhou; Sunderland, Terry (May 2004), "Iboga (Tabernathe iboga)", in Clark, Laurie E.; Sunderland, Terry C.H., The Key Non-Timber Forest Products of Central Africa: State of the Knowledge (PDF), Technical Paper no. 22; SD Publication Series, Office of Sustainable Development, Bureau for Africa, U.S. Agency for International Development, p. 166, retrieved 25 January 2018, The use of T. iboga in Gabonese religious ceremonies has been recorded from an early date.


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  76. ^ ab Nattiez: 5


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  78. ^ Barüske 1969: 24, 50–51


  79. ^ Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 25


  80. ^ ab Hoppál 2005: 14


  81. ^ Pentikäinen 1995: 270


  82. ^ abc Hoppál 2005: 25–26,43


  83. ^ Hoppál 2004: 14


  84. ^ Hoppál 2005: 13–15, 58, 197


  85. ^ Hoppál 2006a: 11


  86. ^ Hoppál 2006b: 175


  87. ^ Hoppál 2007c: 24–25


  88. ^ ab Hoppál, Mihály: Nature worship in Siberian shamanism


  89. ^ Hoppál 2007b: 12–13


  90. ^ abc Hoppál 2007c: 25


  91. ^ Pentikäinen 1995: 270–71


  92. ^ Merkur 1985: v


  93. ^ Hoppál 2007b: 13


  94. ^ David Lewis-Williams, The Mind in the Cave: Consciousness and the Origins of Art (London: Thames and Hudson, 2002)


  95. ^ ab Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff: A View from the Headwaters. The Ecologist, Vol. 29 No. 4, July 1999.


  96. ^ Jean Clottes. "Shamanism in Prehistory". Bradshaw foundation. Archived from the original on 2008-04-30. Retrieved 2008-03-11.


  97. ^ ab Karl J. Narr. "Prehistoric religion". Britannica online encyclopedia 2008. Archived from the original on 2008-04-09. Retrieved 2008-03-28.


  98. ^ Tedlock, Barbara. 2005. The Woman in the Shaman's Body: Reclaiming the Feminine in Religion and Medicine. New York: Bantam


  99. ^ Witzel, 2011.


  100. ^ Winkelman, Michael. Shamanism: a Biopsychosocial Paradigm of Consciousness and Healing. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2010. Print.


  101. ^ "Earliest known shaman grave site found: study", reported by Reuters via Yahoo! News, November 4, 2008, archived. see Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.


  102. ^ Oosten, Jarich; Laugrand, Frederic; Remie, Cornelius (2006). "Perceptions of Decline: Inuit Shamanism in the Canadian Arctic". American Society for Ethnohistory. 53 (3): 445–77. doi:10.1215/00141801-2006-001.


  103. ^ Hoppál 2005: 117


  104. ^ ab Hoppál 2005: 259


  105. ^ Boglár 2001: 19–20


  106. ^ Diószegi 1960: 37–39


  107. ^ Eliade 2001: 76 (Chpt 3 about obtaining shamanic capabilities)


  108. ^ Omnividence: A word created by Edwin A. Abbott in his book titled Flatland


  109. ^ Diószegi 1960: 88–89


  110. ^ Stephen Hugh-Jones 1980: 32


  111. ^ abc Merkur 1985


  112. ^ Hoppál 2005: 224


  113. ^ Nagy 1998: 232


  114. ^ Merkur 1985: 132


  115. ^ Merkur 1985: 134


  116. ^ Hoppál 2005: 92


  117. ^ ab Hoppál 1994: 62


  118. ^ Hoppál 2005: 88


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  120. ^ Hoppál 2005: 111, 117–19, 128, 132, 133–34, 252–63


  121. ^ Hoppál 2005: 257–58


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  124. ^ Lupa 37


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  134. ^ Montague Summers (1928). The Vampire: His Kith and Kin. University Books. pp. 221–. ISBN 978-1605065663.


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  141. ^ Hesse, Klaus (1987). "On the History of Mongolian Shamanism in Anthropological Perspective". Anthropos. 82 (4–6): 403–13. JSTOR 40463470.


  142. ^ Shimamura, Ippei (2014). The Roots seekers: Shamanism and Ethnicity Among the Mongol Buryats. Kanagawa, Japan. ISBN 978-4861103971.


  143. ^ Balogh, Matyas. "Contemporary Shamanisms in Mongolia." Asian Ethnicity 11.2 (2010): 229–38.


  144. ^ Noll, Richard. "Mongol shamans summer solstice fire ritual 21 June 2017". You Tube. Retrieved 4 July 2017.


  145. ^ abc William Henry Scott (1994). Barangay: Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. ISBN 978-9715501354.


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  147. ^ Hoppál 2005: 13


  148. ^ "S^anar [Buryat]". Retrieved 6 June 2015.


  149. ^ ab Hoppál 2005: 92–93


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  151. ^ Julian Baldick, Animal and Shaman: Ancient Religions of Central Asia (New York: University Press, 2000), 3–35


  152. ^ Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer, Shamanism: Soviet Studies of Traditional Religion in Siberia and Central Asia (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1990), 113


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  154. ^ Balzer, Shamanism, 12–21


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  156. ^ Chadwick, Shamanism among the Tatars of Central Asia: 93–101


  157. ^ Price, Neil (2003-12-16). The Archaeology of Shamanism. Routledge. ISBN 978-1134527694.


  158. ^ Chadwick, Shamanism among the Tatars of Central Asia: 85–87


  159. ^ Balzer, Shamanism, 42–49


  160. ^ Gulia 2005, pp. 153–54


  161. ^ Gulia 2005, p. 168


  162. ^ "Miyako shamanism".


  163. ^ O. Lardenois, Shamanism and Catholic Indigenous Communities in Taiwan


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  165. ^ Hajdú 1975: 35


  166. ^ Bonnefoy, Yves, ed. (1993), "Turkish and Mongolian Shamanism", Asian Mythologies, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 329–31, ISBN 978-0226064567


  167. ^ Diószegi 1998


  168. ^ Ginzburg 1983 [1966].


  169. ^ Pócs 1999.


  170. ^ Lecouteux 2003.


  171. ^ Ginzburg 1990.


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  174. ^ ab Kleivan & Sonne 1985


  175. ^ Hoppál 2005: 45–50


  176. ^ ab Menovščikov 1996: 442


  177. ^ Vitebsky 1996


  178. ^ Freuchen 1961: 32


  179. ^ Рубцова 1954: 203, 209


  180. ^ Both death of a person and successfully hunted game require that cutting, sewing etc. be tabooed, so that the invisible soul does not get hurt accidentally (Kleivan & Sonne, pp. 18–21). In Greenland, the transgression of death tabu could turn the soul of the dead into a tupilak, a restless ghost which scared game away (Kleivan & Sonne 1985, p. 23). Animals fled from hunter in case of taboo breaches, e.g. birth taboo, death taboo (Kleivan & Sonne, pp. 12–13)



  181. ^ Kleivan 1985: 8


  182. ^ Rasmussen 1965: 366 (ch. XXIII)


  183. ^ Rasmussen 1965: 166 (ch. XIII)


  184. ^ Rasmussen 1965: 110 (ch. VIII)


  185. ^ Mauss 1979


  186. ^ Kleivan 1985: 26


  187. ^ Menovščikov 1996 [1968]: 433


  188. ^ Menovščikov 1996 [1968]: 442


  189. ^ Vitebsky 1996: 42 (ch. North America)


  190. ^ Merkur 1985:7


  191. ^ Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 14


  192. ^ Rubcova 1954: 128


  193. ^ Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 27


  194. ^ Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 30–31


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  200. ^ VanWagenen, Bradford Carr (20 May 2011). The shaman's mesa: a model of individuation (PhD). Pacifica Graduate Institute. Some of these mesas, like those of the Q'ero shamans, contain a dozen sacred objects; others, typical of the north-coastal shamans of Peru, contain over one hundred objects.


  201. ^ Joralemen, D. and D. Sharon 1993 Sorcery and Shamanism: Curanderos and Clients in Northern Peru. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.


  202. ^ Dean, Bartholomew 1998 "Review of Sorcery and Shamanism: Curanderos and Clients in Northern Peru" American Ethnologist. 25(1): 61–62.


  203. ^ Christine Hugh-Jones 1980


  204. ^ Stephen Hugh-Jones 1980


  205. ^ Fock 1963: 16


  206. ^ "Trance and Shamanic Cure on the South American Continent: Psychopharmalogical and Neurobiological Interpretations", Anthropology of Consciousness, Vol. 21, Issue 1, pp. 83-105,
    ISSN 1053-4202, 2010)



  207. ^ Gusinde 1966, pp. 6–7


  208. ^ Service, Elman: The Hunter. Prentice-Hall, 1966.


  209. ^ "Extinct Ancient Societies Tierra del Fuegians".


  210. ^ Gusinde 1966: 175


  211. ^ "Patagonia, Tierra Del Fuego, cruising; The Yagan and Ona Indians". Archived from the original on 14 June 2015. Retrieved 6 June 2015.


  212. ^ Gusinde 1966: 15


  213. ^ Gusinde 1966: 156


  214. ^ Gusinde 1966: 186


  215. ^ Salak, Kira (2004). Amazon.com listing for the "Four Corners: A Journey into the Heart of Papua New Guinea". ISBN 978-0792274179.


  216. ^ Salak, Kira. "Kira Salak's official webpage on "Four Corners"".


  217. ^ Salak, Kira. "Making Rain – from Four Corners".


  218. ^ Eugene L. Mendonsa : The Politics of Divination : a Processual View of Reactions to Illness and Deviance among the Sisala. University of California Press, Berkeley, 1982. p. 112


  219. ^ David M Cumes "Africa in my bones" p. 14


  220. ^ Susan Schuster Campbell "Called to Heal" p. 38


  221. ^ Susan Schuster Campbell "Called to Heal" p. 79


  222. ^ David M Cumes "Africa in my bones" p. 10


  223. ^ "Karanga mythology [Zimbabwe]".


  224. ^ Nadel, S.F. (1941). "A Shaman Cult in the Nuba Mountains". Sudan Notes and Records. 24 (1): 85–112.


  225. ^ Nadel, S.F. (1946). "A Study of Shamanism in the Nuba Mountains". Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute. 76 (1): 25–37. doi:10.2307/2844307. JSTOR 2844307.


  226. ^ Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (2014), "Entheogenic Esotericism", in Asprem, Egil; Granholm, Kennet, Contemporary Esotericism, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-1908049322, ...what is now known as neoshamanism emerged during the 1960s as a movement dominatedby enthusiasm for natural psychoactives...


  227. ^ Visual Magic:A Manual of Freestyle Shamanism:Jan Fries
    ISBN 1869928571



  228. ^ ULL – Universidad de La Laguna Archived 2012-01-20 at the Wayback Machine. (in Spanish)


  229. ^ "Ca-Com". Retrieved 6 June 2015.


  230. ^ ab ISSR, 2001 Summer, abstract online in 2nd half of 2nd paragraph


  231. ^ Hoppál & Szathmári & Takács 2006: 14


  232. ^ Hoppál 1998: 40


  233. ^ Vitebsky 1996: 11


  234. ^ Rydving, Hakan (2011). "Le chamanisme aujourd'hui: constructions et deconstructions d'une illusion scientifique". Etudes Mongoles et Siberiennes, Centrasiatiques et Tibetaines. 42 (42). doi:10.4000/emscat.1815.


  235. ^ Bumochir, Dulam (2014). "Institutionalization of Mongolian shamanism: from primitivism to civilization". Asian Ethnicity. 15 (4): 473–491.


  236. ^ Hangartner, Judith (2011). The Constitution and Contestation of Darhad Shamans' Power in Contemporary Mongolia. Leiden: Global Oriental. ISBN 978-1906876111.


  237. ^ Kollmar-Paulenz, Karenina (2012). "The Invention of "Shamanism" in 18th Century Mongolian Elite Discourse". Rocznik Orientalistyczny. LXV (1): 90–106.



References


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  • Barüske, Heinz (1969). Eskimo Märchen. Die Märchen der Weltliteratur (in German). Düsseldorf • Köln: Eugen Diederichs Verlag. The title means: "Eskimo tales", the series means: "The tales of world literature".


  • Boglár, Lajos (2001). A kultúra arcai. Mozaikok a kulturális antropológia köreiből. TÁRStudomány (in Hungarian). Budapest: Napvilág Kiadó. ISBN 978-9639082946. The title means "The faces of culture. Mosaics from the area of cultural anthropology".


  • Bolin, Hans (2000). "Animal Magic: The mythological significance of elks, boats and humans in north Swedish rock art". Journal of Material Culture. 5 (2): 153–76.


  • Czaplicka, M.A. (1914). "Types of shaman". Shamanism in Siberia. Aboriginal Siberia. A study in social anthropology. preface by Marett, R.R. Somerville College, University of Oxford, Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-1605060606.


  • Dana, Kathleen Osgood (Summer 2004). "Áillohaš and his image drum: the native poet as shaman" (PDF). Nordlit. 15.
    [permanent dead link]


  • Deschênes, Bruno (2002). "Inuit Throat-Singing". Musical Traditions. The Magazine for Traditional Music Throughout the World.


  • Diószegi, Vilmos (1968). Tracing shamans in Siberia. The story of an ethnographical research expedition. Translated from Hungarian by Anita Rajkay Babó. Oosterhout: Anthropological Publications.


  • Diószegi, Vilmos (1962). Samanizmus. Élet és Tudomány Kiskönyvtár (in Hungarian). Budapest: Gondolat. ISBN 978-9639147133. The title means: "Shamanism".


  • Diószegi, Vilmos (1998) [1958]. A sámánhit emlékei a magyar népi műveltségben (in Hungarian) (first reprint ed.). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. ISBN 978-9630575423. The title means: "Remnants of shamanistic beliefs in Hungarian folklore".


  • Fienup-Riordan, Ann (1994). Boundaries and Passages: Rule and Ritual in Yup'ik Eskimo Oral Tradition. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0585121901.


  • Fock, Niels (1963). Waiwai. Religion and society of an Amazonian tribe. Nationalmuseets skrifter, Etnografisk Række (Ethnographical series), VIII. Copenhagen: The National Museum of Denmark.


  • Freuchen, Peter (1961). Book of the Eskimos. Cleveland • New York: The World Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0449308028.


  • Gulia, Kuldip Singh (2005). Human Ecology of Sikkim – A Case Study of Upper Rangit Basin. Delhi, India: Kalpaz Publications. ISBN 978-8178353258.


  • Hajdú, Péter (1975). "A rokonság nyelvi háttere". In Hajdú, Péter. Uráli népek. Nyelvrokonaink kultúrája és hagyományai (in Hungarian). Budapest: Corvina Kiadó. ISBN 978-9631309003. The title means: "Uralic peoples. Culture and traditions of our linguistic relatives"; the chapter means "Linguistical background of the relationship".


  • Hoppál, Mihály (1994). Sámánok, lelkek és jelképek (in Hungarian). Budapest: Helikon Kiadó. ISBN 978-9632082981. The title means "Shamans, souls and symbols".


  • Hoppál, Mihály (1998). "A honfoglalók hitvilága és a magyar samanizmus". Folklór és közösség (in Hungarian). Budapest: Széphalom Könyvműhely. pp. 40–45. ISBN 978-9639028142. The title means "The belief system of Hungarians when they entered the Pannonian Basin, and their shamanism".


  • Hoppál, Mihály (2005). Sámánok Eurázsiában (in Hungarian). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. ISBN 978-9630582957. The title means "Shamans in Eurasia", the book is published also in German, Estonian and Finnish. Site of publisher with short description on the book (in Hungarian).


  • Hoppál, Mihály (2006a). "Sámánok, kultúrák és kutatók az ezredfordulón". In Hoppál, Mihály; Szathmári, Botond; Takács, András. Sámánok és kultúrák. Budapest: Gondolat. pp. 9–25. ISBN 978-9639450288. The chapter title means "Shamans, cultures and researchers in the millenary", the book title means "Shamans and cultures".


  • Hoppál, Mihály (2007b). "Is Shamanism a Folk Religion?". Shamans and Traditions (Vol. 13). Bibliotheca Shamanistica. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. pp. 11–16. ISBN 978-9630585217.


  • Hoppál, Mihály (2007c). "Eco-Animism of Siberian Shamanhood". Shamans and Traditions (Vol 13). Bibliotheca Shamanistica. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. pp. 17–26. ISBN 978-9630585217.

  • Janhunen, Juha. Siberian shamanistic terminology. Memoires de la Societe finno-ougrienne, 1986, 194: 97–117.


  • Hugh-Jones, Christine (1980). From the Milk River: Spatial and Temporal Processes in Northwest Amazonia. Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521225441.


  • Hugh-Jones, Stephen (1980). The Palm and the Pleiades. Initiation and Cosmology in Northwest Amazonia. Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521219525.


  • Kleivan, Inge; B. Sonne (1985). Eskimos: Greenland and Canada. Iconography of religions, section VIII, "Arctic Peoples", fascicle 2. Leiden, The Netherlands: Institute of Religious Iconography • State University Groningen. E.J. Brill. ISBN 978-9004071605.

  • Lupa. New Paths to Animal Totems. Woodbury, MN: Llewellyn Worldwide, 2012.
    ISBN 978-0738733371.


  • Menovščikov, G.A. (= Г. А. Меновщиков) (1968). "Popular Conceptions, Religious Beliefs and Rites of the Asiatic Eskimoes". In Diószegi, Vilmos. Popular beliefs and folklore tradition in Siberia. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.


  • Nagy, Beáta Boglárka (1998). "Az északi szamojédok". In Csepregi, Márta. Finnugor kalauz. Panoráma (in Hungarian). Budapest: Medicina Könyvkiadó. pp. 221–34. ISBN 978-9632438139. The chapter means "Northern Samoyedic peoples", the title means Finno-Ugric guide.


  • Nattiez, Jean Jacques. Inuit Games and Songs / Chants et Jeux des Inuit. Musiques & musiciens du monde / Musics & musicians of the world. Montreal: Research Group in Musical Semiotics, Faculty of Music, University of Montreal.. The songs are available online, on the ethnopoetics website curated by Jerome Rothenberg.


  • Noll, Richard; Shi, Kun (2004). "Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu), The Last Shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast China" (PDF). 韓國宗敎硏究 (Journal of Korean Religions). 6. Seoul KR: 西江大學校. 宗教硏究所 (Sŏgang Taehakkyo. Chonggyo Yŏnʾguso.). pp. 135–62. Retrieved 2008-07-30.. It describes the life of Chuonnasuan, the last shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast China.

  • Reinhard, Johan (1976) "Shamanism and Spirit Possession: The Definition Problem." In Spirit Possession in the Nepal Himalayas, J. Hitchcock & R. Jones (eds.), New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, pp. 12–20.


  • Shimamura, Ippei The roots Seekers: Shamanism and Ethnicity Among the Mongol Buryats. Yokohama, Japan: Shumpusha, 2014.

  • Turner, Robert P.; Lukoff, David; Barnhouse, Ruth Tiffany & Lu, Francis G. (1995) Religious or Spiritual Problem. A Culturally Sensitive Diagnostic Category in the DSM-IV. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, Vol.183, No. 7, pp. 435–44


  • Voigt, Miklós (2000). "Sámán – a szó és értelme". Világnak kezdetétől fogva. Történeti folklorisztikai tanulmányok (in Hungarian). Budapest: Universitas Könyvkiadó. pp. 41–45. ISBN 978-9639104396. The chapter discusses the etymology and meaning of word "shaman".



  • Witzel, Michael (2011). "Shamanism in Northern and Southern Eurasia: their distinctive methods and change of consciousness" (PDF). Social Science Information. 50 (1): 39–61. doi:10.1177/0539018410391044.


Further reading





  • Joseph Campbell, The Masks of God: Primitive Mythology. 1959; reprint, New York and London: Penguin Books, 1976.
    ISBN 0140194436

  • Harner, Michael, The Way of the Shaman: A Guide to Power and Healing, Harper & Row Publishers, NY 1980

  • Richard de Mille, ed. The Don Juan Papers: Further Castaneda Controversies. Santa Barbara, California: Ross-Erikson, 1980.

  • George Devereux, "Shamans as Neurotics", American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 63, No. 5, Part 1. (Oct. 1961), pp. 1088–90.

  • Jay Courtney Fikes, Carlos Castaneda: Academic Opportunism and the Psychedelic Sixties, Millennia Press, Canada, 1993
    ISBN 0969696000

  • Åke Hultkrantz (Honorary Editor in Chief): Shaman. Journal of the International Society for Shamanistic Research

  • Philip Jenkins, Dream Catchers: How Mainstream America Discovered Native Spirituality. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
    ISBN 0195161157

  • Alice Kehoe, Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking. 2000. London: Waveland Press.
    ISBN 1577661621


  • David Charles Manners, In the Shadow of Crows. (contains first-hand accounts of the Nepalese jhankri tradition) Oxford: Signal Books, 2011.
    ISBN 1904955924.

  • Jordan D. Paper, The Spirits are Drunk: Comparative Approaches to Chinese Religion, Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1995.
    ISBN 0791423158.

  • Smith, Frederick M. (2006). The Self Possessed: Deity and Spirit Possession in South Asian Literature. Columbia University Press,
    ISBN 0231137486. pp. 195–202.


  • Barbara Tedlock, Time and the Highland Maya, U. of New Mexico Press, 1992.
    ISBN 0826313582

  • Silvia Tomášková, Wayward Shamans: the prehistory of an idea, University of California Press, 2013.
    ISBN 978-0520275324


  • Michel Weber, « Shamanism and proto-consciousness », in René Lebrun, Julien De Vos et É. Van Quickelberghe (éds), Deus Unicus. Actes du colloque « Aux origines du monothéisme et du scepticisme religieux » organisé à Louvain-la-Neuve les 7 et 8 juin 2013 par le Centre d’histoire des Religions Cardinal Julien Ries [Cardinalis Julien Ries et Pierre Bordreuil in memoriam], Turnhout, Brepols, coll. Homo Religiosus série II, 14, 2015, pp. 247–60.

  • Andrei Znamenski, Shamanism in Siberia: Russian Records of Siberian Spirituality. Dordrech and Boston: Kluwer/Springer, 2003.
    ISBN 1402017405



External links







  • AFECT A charitable organization protecting traditional cultures in northern Thailand


  • Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu), The Last Shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast China, by Richard Noll and Kun Shi


  • New Age Frauds and Plastic Shamans, an organization devoted to alerting seekers about fraudulent teachers, and helping them avoid being exploited or participating in exploitation


  • Shamanic Healing Rituals by Tatyana Sem, Russian Museum of Ethnography


  • Shamanism and the Image of the Teutonic Deity, Óðinn by A. Asbjorn Jon


  • Shamanism in Siberia – photographs by Standa Krupar


  • Studies in Siberian Shamanism and Religions of the Finno-Ugrian Peoples by Aado Lintrop, Folk Belief and Media Group of the Estonian Literary Museum


  • A View from the Headwaters by Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff Amazonian Indigenous Peoples and ecology










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