Odtnhj

Euler diagram showing the relationships between various multinational African entities v • d • e

One of the key debates in relation to the achievement of greater continental integration is the relative priority that should be given to integration of the continent as a unit in itself or to integration of the sub-regions. The 1980 Lagos Plan of Action for the Development of Africa and the 1991 treaty to establish the African Economic Community (also referred to as the Abuja Treaty), proposed the creation of Regional Economic Communities (RECs) as the basis for African integration, with a timetable for regional and then continental integration to follow.^[27]

Currently, there are eight RECs recognised by the AU, each established under a separate regional treaty. They are:

• the Arab Maghreb Union (AMU)


• the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)


• the Community of Sahel-Saharan States (CEN-SAD)


• the East African Community (EAC)


• the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS)


• the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)


• the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD)


• the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC)

The membership of many of the communities overlaps, and their rationalisation has been under discussion for several years – and formed the theme of the 2006 Banjul summit. At the July 2007 Accra summit the Assembly finally decided to adopt a Protocol on Relations between the African Union and the Regional Economic Communities.^[28] This protocol is intended to facilitate the harmonisation of policies and ensure compliance with the Abuja Treaty and Lagos Plan of Action time frames.

Selection of chair

In 2006, the AU decided to create a Committee "to consider the implementation of a rotation system between the regions" in relation to the presidency. Controversy arose at the 2006 summit when Sudan announced its candidacy for the AU's chairmanship, as a representative of the East African region. Several member states refused to support Sudan because of tensions over Darfur (see also below). Sudan ultimately withdrew its candidacy and President Denis Sassou-Nguesso of the Republic of the Congo was elected to a one-year term. At the January 2007 summit, Sassou-Nguesso was replaced by President John Agyekum Kufuor of Ghana, despite another attempt by Sudan to gain the chair. 2007 was the 50th anniversary of Ghana's independence, a symbolic moment for the country to hold the chair of the AU—and to host the mid-year summit at which the proposed Union Government was also discussed. In January 2008, President Jakaya Kikwete of Tanzania took over as chair, representing the East African region and thus apparently ending Sudan's attempt to become chair—at least till the rotation returns to East Africa.^[29] The current chair is Benin

List of chairpersons

Muammar Gaddafi embracing Tanzanian President Kikwete after assuming the chairmanship

Chairpersons of the African Union

Name	Beginning of term	End of term	Country
Thabo Mbeki	9 July 2002	10 July 2003	South Africa
Joaquim Chissano	10 July 2003	6 July 2004	Mozambique
Olusegun Obasanjo	6 July 2004	24 January 2006	Nigeria
Denis Sassou-Nguesso	24 January 2006	24 January 2007	Congo
John Kufuor	30 January 2007	31 January 2008	Ghana
Jakaya Kikwete	31 January 2008	2 February 2009	Tanzania
Muammar al-Gaddafi	2 February 2009	31 January 2010	Libya
Bingu wa Mutharika[30][31]	31 January 2010	31 January 2011	Malawi
Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo[32]	31 January 2011	29 January 2012	Equatorial Guinea
Yayi Boni	29 January 2012	27 January 2013	Benin
Hailemariam Desalegn	27 January 2013	30 January 2014	Ethiopia
Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz	30 January 2014	30 January 2015	Mauritania
Robert Mugabe	30 January 2015	30 January 2016	Zimbabwe
Idriss Déby	30 January 2016	30 January 2017	Chad
Alpha Condé	30 January 2017	28 January 2018	Guinea
Paul Kagame[33]	28 January 2018	Incumbent	Rwanda

Headquarters

The African Union's headquarters complex in Addis Ababa

The main administrative capital of the African Union is in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, where the African Union Commission is headquartered. A new headquarters complex, the AU Conference Center and Office Complex (AUCC), was inaugurated on 28 January 2012, during the 18th AU summit.^[34] The complex was built by China State Construction Engineering Corporation as a gift from the Chinese government, and accommodates, among other facilities, a 2,500-seat plenary hall and a 20-story office tower. The tower is 99.9 meters high to signify the date 9 September 1999, when the Organization of African Unity voted to become the African Union.^[35] The building cost US$200 million to construct.^[36]

On 26 January 2018, five years after the building's completion, the French Newspaper Le Monde^[37] published an article stating that the Chinese government had heavily bugged the building, installing listening devices in the walls and furniture and setting up the computer system to copy data to servers in Shanghai daily.^[36] The Chinese government denied that they bugged the building, stating that the accusations were "utterly groundless and ridiculous."^[36] Ethiopian Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn rejected the French media report.^[38]Moussa Faki Mahamat, head of the African Union Commission, said the allegations in the Le Monde's report were false. "These are totally false allegations and I believe that we are completely disregarding them."^[39]

African Union Summits

Session	Host country	Host city	Date	Theme	Notes
30th[40]	Ethiopia	Addis Ababa	22–29 January 2018	“Winning the Fight against Corruption: A Sustainable Path to Africa’s Transformation”
29th[41]	Ethiopia	Addis Ababa	27 June–4 July 2017	“Harnessing the Demographic Dividend through Investments in Youth”
28th[42]	Ethiopia	Addis Ababa	22–31 January 2017	“Harnessing the Demographic Dividend through investments in Youth”	Morocco rejoins the AU after 33 years
27th[43]	Rwanda	Kigali	10–18 July 2016	“African Year of Human Rights with particular focus on the Rights of Women”	Launch of African Union Passport
26th[44]	Ethiopia	Addis Ababa	21–31 January 2016	“African Year of Human Rights with particular focus on the Rights of Women”
Third India-Africa Forum Summit	India	New Delhi	26–29 October 2015	Reinvigorated Partnership-Shared Vision
25th[45][46]	South Africa	Johannesburg	7–15 June 2015	“Year of Women Empowerment and Development Towards Africa’s Agenda 2063”	Featured Angelina Jolie[47]
24th[48]	Ethiopia	Addis Ababa	23–31 January 2015	“Year of Women Empowerment and Development Towards Africa’s Agenda 2063”
2nd Africa-Turkey Summit[49][50]	Equatorial Guinea	Malabo	19–21 November 2014	“A new model of partnership to enhance a sustainable development and integration of Africa”
23rd[51]	Equatorial Guinea	Malabo	20–27 June 2014	“Year of Agriculture and food security”
22nd[52][53]	Ethiopia	Addis Ababa	21–31 January 2014	“Year Agriculture and food security, Marking 10th Anniversary of the Adoption of the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP)”
ICC – Extraordinary Summit[54]	Ethiopia	Addis Ababa	11–12 October 2013	“Africa's relationship with the ICC”	This was in regards to the ICC's non-adherence to AU calls to drop certain charges against sitting leaders and that it was disproportionally targeting Africans.[55]
21st[56]	Ethiopia	Addis Ababa	19–27 May 2013	“Panafricanism and African Renaissance”	50th Anniversary of the Establishment of the Organisation of African Unity
20th[57]	Ethiopia	Addis Ababa	27–28 January 2013	“Panafricanism and African Renaissance”
Diaspora Summit[58]	South Africa	Sandton	23–25 May 2012	“Towards the realisation of a united and integrated Africa and its diaspora”
19th[59]	Ethiopia	Addis Ababa	9–16 July 2012	“Boosting Intra-African trade”
18th[60]	Ethiopia	Addis Ababa	23–30 January 2012	“Boosting Intra-African trade”
17th[61]	Equatorial Guinea	Malabo	23 June–1 July 2011	“Youth empowerment for sustainable development”
2nd Africa-India Summit[62]	Ethiopia	Addis Ababa	20–25 May 2011	“Enhancing partnership: shared vision”
16th[63]	Ethiopia	Addis Ababa	24–31 January 2011	“Towards greater unity and integration through shared values”
15th[64]	Uganda	Kampala	19–27 July 2010	“Maternal, Infant, and Child Health and Development in Africa”
14th[65]	Ethiopia	Addis Ababa	25 January–2 February 2010	“Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in Africa: Challenges and Prospects for Development”
13th[66]	Libya	Sirte	24 June–3 July 2009	“Investing in Agriculture for Economic Growth and Food Security”
12th[67]	Ethiopia	Addis Ababa	26 January–3 February 2009	“Infrastructure Development in Africa”
11th[68]	Egypt	Sharm el-Sheikh	24 June–1 July 2008	“Meeting the Millennium Development Goals on Water and Sanitation”
10th[69]	Ethiopia	Addis Ababa	25 January–2 February 2008	“Industrial Development of Africa”
9th[70]	Ghana	Accra	25 June–6 July 2007	“Grand Debate on the Union Government”
8th[71]	Ethiopia	Addis Ababa	22–30 January 2007	1. Science, Technology and Scientific Research for Development 2. Climate change in Africa
7th[72]	Gambia	Banjul	25 June–2 July 2006	“Rationalisation of Recs and Regional Integration”
6th[73]	Sudan	Khartoum	16–24 January 2006	“Education and Culture”
5th[74]	Libya	Sirte	28–29 June 2005
Extraordinary summit on UN Reform[75]	Ethiopia	Addis Ababa	4 August 2005
4th[76]	Nigeria	Abuja	24–31 January 2005
3rd[77]	Ethiopia	Addis Ababa	6–8 July 2004
2nd[78]	Mozambique	Maputo	2–12 July 2003
1st[79]	South Africa	Durban	28–10 July 2002	“Peace, Development and Prosperity: The African Century”	Notable events include the launch of the African Union.[80]

Foreign relations

The individual member states of the African Union coordinate foreign policy through this agency, in addition to conducting their own international relations on a state-by-state basis. The AU represents the interests of African peoples at large in intergovernmental organisations (IGOs); for instance, it is a permanent observer at the United Nations General Assembly. Both the African Union and the United Nations work in tandem to address issues of common concerns in various areas. The African Union Mission in United Nations aspires to serve as a bridge between the two Organisations.

Membership of the AU overlaps with other IGOs and occasionally these third-party organisations and the AU will coordinate matters of public policy. The African Union maintains special diplomatic representation with the United States and the European Union.

In 2016, the Union introduced continent-wide passports.^[81]

Upon the election of Donald Trump for the presidency of the U.S., in 2017, the latter passed an executive order for a ban on citizens from seven countries with suspected links to terrorism, that concerns three African countries. During the 28th African Union Summit, in Ethiopia, African leaders criticized the ban^[82] as they expressed their growing concerns for the African Economy, under Trump's policies.

Africa–China relations

One of the leading economic partners of the continent has been the People's Republic of China (PRC). In September 2018, the bloc held its third Forum on China–Africa Cooperation summit in Beijing, China.

Economy

The AU's future goals include the creation of a free trade area, a customs union, a single market, a central bank, and a common currency (see African Monetary Union), thereby establishing economic and monetary union. The current plan is to establish an African Economic Community with a single currency by 2023.^[83]

Indicators

The following table shows various data for AU member states, including area, population, economic output and income inequality, as well as various indices, including human development, viability of the state, perception of corruption, economic freedom, state of peace, freedom of the press and democratic level.

Country	Land Area (km²) 2015[84]	Population 2016[5]	GDP (PPP) (Intl. $) 2015[84]	GDP (PPP) per capita (Intl. $) 2015[84]	HDI 2014[85]	FSI 2016[86]	CPI 2016[87]	IEF 2016[88]	GPI 2016[89]	WPFI 2016[90]	DI 2016[91]
Algeria	2,381,741	40,606,052	548,293,085,686	13,823	0.736	78.3	34	50.06	2.21	41.69	3.56
Angola	1,246,700	28,813,463	173,593,223,667	6,938	0.532	90.5	18	48.94	2.14	39.89	3.40
Benin	112,760	10,872,298	21,016,184,357	1,932	0.48	78.9	36	59.31	2.00	28.97	5.67
Botswana	566,730	2,250,260	33,657,545,969	14,876	0.698	63.5	60	71.07	1.64	22.91	7.87
Burkina Faso	273,600	18,646,433	28,840,666,622	1,593	0.402	89.4	42	59.09	2.06	22.66	4.70
Burundi	25,680	10,524,117	7,634,578,343	300	0.4	100.7	20	53.91	2.50	54.10	2.40
Cape Verde	4,030	539,560	3,205,197,585	6,158	0.646	71.5	59	66.46	N/A	19.82	7.94
Cameroon	472,710	23,439,189	68,302,439,597	2,926	0.512	97.8	26	54.18	2.36	40.53	3.46
Central African Republic	622,980	4,594,621	2,847,726,468	581	0.35	112.1	20	45.23	3.35	33.60	1.61
Chad	1,259,200	14,452,543	28,686,194,920	2,044	0.392	110.1	20	46.33	2.46	40.59	1.50
Comoros	1,861	795,601	1,098,546,195	1,393	0.503	83.8	24	52.35	N/A	24.33	3.71
Congo, Democratic Republic of the	2,267,050	78,736,153	56,920,935,460	300	0.433		21	46.38	3.11	50.97	1.93
Congo, Republic of the	341,500	5,125,821	27,690,345,067	5,993	0.591	92.2	20	42.80	2.25	35.84	2.91
Côte d'Ivoire	318,000	23,695,919	74,916,780,423	3,300	0.462	97.9	34	60.01	2.28	30.17	3.81
Djibouti	23,180	942,333	2,911,406,226	3,279	0.47	89.7	30	55.96	2.29	70.90	2.83
Egypt	1,010,407	95,688,681	1,173,000,000,000	10,250	0.69	90.2	34	55.96	2.57	54.45	3.31
Equatorial Guinea	28,050	1,221,490	32,317,928,931	38,243	0.587	85.2	N/A	43.67	1.94	66.47	1.70
Eritrea[92]	101,000	4,954,645	8,845,000,000b	600b	0.391	98.6	18	42.7	2.46	83.92	2.37
eSwatini (Swaziland)	17,200	1,343,098	10,452,834,007	8,122	0.531	87.6	N/A	59.65	2.07	52.37	3.03
Ethiopia	1,104,300	102,403,196	152,057,290,468	1,530	0.442	97.2	34	51.52	2.28	45.13	3.60
Gabon	257,670	1,979,786	32,539,376,597	18,860	0.684	72	35	58.96	2.03	32.20	3.74
Gambia, The	10,120	2,038,501	3,140,820,062	1,578	0.441	86.8	26	57.14	2.09	46.53	2.91
Ghana	227,540	28,206,728	108,393,071,924	3,955	0.579	71.2	43	63.00	1.81	17.95	6.75
Guinea	245,720	12,395,924	14,316,884,358	1,135	0.411	103.8	27	53.33	2.15	33.08	3.14
Guinea-Bissau	28,120	1,815,698	2,521,743,682	1,367	0.42	99.8	16	51.81	2.26	29.03	1.98
Kenya	569,140	48,461,567	133,592,522,053	2,901	0.548	98.3	26	57.51	2.38	31.16	5.33
Lesotho	30,360	2,203,821	5,914,437,068	2,770	0.497	80.9	39	50.62	1.94	28.78	6.59
Liberia	96,320	4,613,823	3,533,313,381	500	0.43	95.5	37	52.19	2.00	30.71	5.31
Libya[93]	1,759,540	6,293,253	94,010,000,000b	14,900b	0.724	96.4	14	N/A	3.20	57.89	2.25
Madagascar	581,800	24,894,551	33,354,200,458	1,376	0.51	84.2	26	61.06	1.76	27.04	5.07
Malawi	94,280	18,091,575	19,137,290,349	1,112	0.445	87.6	31	51.8	1.82	28.12	5.55
Mali	1,220,190	17,994,837	33,524,899,739	1,905	0.419	95.2	32	56.54	2.49	39.83	5.70
Mauritania[94]	1,030,700	4,301,018	16,190,000,000b	4,400b	0.506	95.4	27	54.8	2.30	24.03	3.96
Mauritius	2,030	1,262,132	23,817,914,134	18,864	0.777	43.2	54	74.73	1.56	27.69	8.28
Morocco	446,300	35,276,786	257,398,957,178	7,365	0.628	74.2	37	61.27	2.09	42.64	4.77
Mozambique	786,380	28,829,476	31,326,751,237	1,120	0.416	87.8	27	53.19	1.96	30.25	4.02
Namibia	823,290	2,479,713	24,043,436,006	9,778	0.628	71.1	52	61.85	1.87	15.15	6.31
Niger	1,266,700	20,672,987	17,857,377,171	897	0.348	98.4	35	54.26	2.24	24.62	3.96
Nigeria	910,770	185,989,640	1,168,000,000,000	5,639	0.514	103.5	28	57.46	2.88	35.90	4.50
Rwanda	24,670	11,917,508	19,216,033,048	1,655	0.483	91.3	54	63.07	2.32	54.61	3.07
São Tomé and Príncipe	960	199,910	575,391,345	3,023	0.555	72.9	46	56.71	N/A	N/A	N/A
Senegal	192,530	15,411,614	34,398,281,018	2,274	0.466	83.6	45	58.09	1.98	27.99	6.21
Seychelles	460	94,228	2,384,515,771	25,525	0.772	60.2	N/A	62.2	N/A	30.60	N/A
Sierra Leone	72,180	7,396,190	9,511,431,824	1,474	0.413	91	30	52.31	1.81	29.94	4.55
Somalia[95]	627,340	14,317,996	5,900,000,000c	600c	N/A	114	10	N/A	3.41	65.35	N/A
South Africa	1,213,090	56,015,473	742,461,000,000	12,393	0.666	69.9	45	61.9	2.32	21.92	7.41
South Sudan	619,745	12,230,730	21,484,823,398	1,741	0.467	113.8	11	N/A	3.59	44.87	N/A
Sudan	1,886,086	39,578,828	165,813,461,495	4,121	0.479	111.5	14	N/A	3.27	72.53	2.37
Tanzania	885,800	55,572,201	130,297,806,032	2,510	0.521	81.8	32	58.46	1.90	28.65	5.76
Togo	54,390	7,606,374	10,018,697,437	1,372	0.484	85.8	32	53.64	1.95	30.31	3.32
Tunisia	155,360	11,403,248	121,200,025,401	10,770	0.721	74.6	41	57.55	1.95	31.60	6.40
Uganda	200,520	41,487,965	67,856,334,117	1,738	0.483	97.7	25	59.26	2.15	32.58	5.26
Western Sahara[96]	266,000	538,755	906,500,000d	2,500d	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
Zambia	743,390	16,591,390	58,400,082,027	3,602	0.586	86.3	38	58.79	1.78	35.08	5.99
Zimbabwe	386,850	16,150,362	26,180,942,292	500	0.509	100.5	22	38.23	2.32	40.41	3.05
African Union	30,370,000	1,225,080,510	5,457,724,064,668	4,602	0.524d	88.99d	31.51d	55.55d	2.27	37.89	4.30
Country	Land Area (km²) 2015	Population 2016	GDP (PPP) (Intl. $) 2015	GDP (PPP) per capita (Intl. $) 2015	HDI 2014	FSI 2016	CPI 2016	IEF 2016	GPI 2016	WPFI 2016	DI 2016

^a External data from 2016.
^b External data from 2015.
^c External data from 2014.
^d AU total used for indicators 1 through 3; AU weighted average used for indicator 4; AU unweighted average used for indicators 5 through 12.

Culture

Symbols

Emblem of the African Union

The emblem of the African Union consists of a gold ribbon bearing small interlocking red rings, from which palm leaves shoot up around an outer gold circle and an inner green circle, within which is a gold representation of Africa. The red interlinked rings stand for African solidarity and the blood shed for the liberation of Africa; the palm leaves for peace; the gold, for Africa's wealth and bright future; the green, for African hopes and aspirations. To symbolise African unity, the silhouette of Africa is drawn without internal borders.

The African Union adopted its new flag at its 14th Ordinary Session of the Assembly of Heads of State and Government taking place in Addis Ababa 2010. During the 8th African Union Summit which took place in Addis Ababa on 29 and 30 January 2007, the Heads of State and Government decided to launch a competition for the selection of a new flag for the Union. They prescribed a green background for the flag symbolising hope of Africa and stars to represent Member States.

Pursuant to this decision, the African Union Commission (AUC) organised a competition for the selection of a new flag for the African Union. The AUC received a total of 106 entries proposed by citizens of 19 African countries and 2 from the Diaspora. The proposals were then examined by a panel of experts put in place by the African Union Commission and selected from the five African regions for short listing according to the main directions given by the Heads of State and Government.

At the 13th Ordinary Session of the Assembly, the Heads of State and Government examined the report of the Panel and selected one among all the proposals. The flag is now part of the paraphernalia of the African Union and replaces the old one.

The old flag of the African Union bears a broad green horizontal stripe, a narrow band of gold, the emblem of the African Union at the centre of a broad white stripe, another narrow gold band and a final broad green stripe. Again, the green and gold symbolise Africa's hopes and aspirations as well as its wealth and bright future, and the white represents the purity of Africa's desire for friends throughout the world. The flag has led to the creation of the "national colours" of Africa of gold and green (sometimes together with white). These colours are visible in one way or another in the flags of many African nations. Together the colours green, gold, and red constitute the Pan-African colours.

The African Union has adopted the anthem, "Let Us All Unite and Celebrate Together".

Celebration

Africa Day, formerly African Freedom Day and African Liberation Day, is an annual commemoration regarding the founding of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), on 25 May 1963, and occurring on the same date of the month each year. Other celebrations include the following:

• The Fez Festival of World Sacred Music: a week long celebration for harmony between cultures with dancing, Moroccan music, art exhibitions and films.^[97]


• The Knysna Oyster festival: held in Knysna and focused around sport, food and their oyster heritage.^[98]


• 
  Lake of Stars Festival: three-day celebration that takes place in Lake Malawi, showcasing African music and welcoming people from around the world.^[99]


• 
  Fête du Vodoun: also known as the Ouidah Voodoo Festival. It is centred around their rituals on voodoo temples, with entertainment that includes horse races and traditional drum performances.^[100]


• 
  Umhlanga (ceremony): is mainly a private event for young women but on the sixth and seventh days the traditions are done publicly.^[101]


• Marsabit Lake Turkana Cultural Festival: held in Kenya and celebrates harmony amongst tribes with their culture, singing, dancing and traditional costumes.^[102]

Current issues

The AU faces many challenges, including health issues such as combating malaria and the AIDS/HIV epidemic; political issues such as confronting undemocratic regimes and mediating in the many civil wars; economic issues such as improving the standard of living of millions of impoverished, uneducated Africans; ecological issues such as dealing with recurring famines, desertification, and lack of ecological sustainability; as well as the legal issues regarding Western Sahara.

AIDS in Africa

The AU has been active in addressing the AIDS pandemic in Africa. In 2001, the AU established AIDS Watch Africa to coordinate and mobilize a continent-wide response.^[103]Sub-Saharan Africa, especially southern and eastern Africa, is the most affected area in the world. Though this region is home to only 6.2% of the world's population, it is also home to half of the world's population infected with HIV.^[104] While the measurement of HIV prevalence rates has proved methodologically challenging, more than 20% of the sexually active population of many countries of southern Africa may be infected, with South Africa, Botswana, Kenya, Namibia, and Zimbabwe all expected to have a decrease in life expectancy by an average of 6.5 years. The pandemic has had massive implications for the economy of the continent, reducing economic growth rates by 2–4% across Africa.^[105]

In July 2007, the AU endorsed two new initiatives to combat the AIDS crisis, including a push to recruit, train and integrate 2 million community health workers into the continent's healthcare systems.^[106]

In January 2012, the African Union Assembly requested that the African Union Commission would work out “a roadmap of shared responsibility to draw on African efforts for a viable health funding with support of traditional and emerging partners to address AIDS dependency response.” Once created, the roadmap (as it is officially known) provided a group of solutions that would enhance the shared responsibility and global solidarity for AIDS, TB, and Malaria responses in Africa by 2015. The roadmap was organized into three pillars which were: diversified financing, access to medicines, and enhanced health governance. The roadmap held stakeholders accountable for the realization of these solutions between 2012 and 2015.

The first pillar, diversified financing, ensures that countries begin to develop a country specific financial sustainability plans with clear targets, and identify and maximize opportunities to diversify funding sources in order to increase the domestic resource allocation to AIDS and other diseases.

The second pillar, access to affordable and quality-assured medicines, tries to promote and facilitate investing in leading medicine hub manufacturers in Africa, accelerate and strengthen medicine regulatory harmonization, and create legislation that would help to protect the knowledge of the researchers who develop these life-saving medicines.

The third pillar, enhanced leadership and governance, tries to invest in programs that support people and communities to prevent HIV and ensure that leadership at all levels is mobilized to implement the roadmap. There are several organizations that will ensure the smooth implementation of the roadmap, including NEPAD, UNAIDS, WHO, and several other UN partners.^[107]

Libya

When the conflicts in Libya began in 2011, the African Union was initially criticized for not doing much to prevent the escalation of conflict in Libya. Additionally, the AU hesitated to take a side when the conflict in Libya began. There was some vagueness when it came to the African Union's position in the conflict, it was unclear if they were fully supporting the Libyan regime or if they were instead supporting the Libyan citizens. This ambiguity occurred right around the time when there were several human right violations against the Libyan regime. It was later realized that the hesitation in the AU's response to the Arab Spring in Libya was due to its lack of capacity and capability for engaging in democratic reforms.^[108]

The AU attempted to mediate in the early stages of the 2011 Libyan civil war, forming an ad hoc committee of five presidents (Congolese President Denis Sassou Nguesso, Malian President Amadou Toumani Touré, Mauritanian President Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz, South African President Jacob Zuma, and Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni) to broker a truce.^[109] However, the beginning of the NATO-led military intervention in March 2011 prevented the committee from traveling to Libya to meet with Libyan leader and former head of the AU until 2010 Muammar Gaddafi.^[110] As a body, the AU sharply dissented from the United Nations Security Council's decision to create a no-fly zone over Libya,^[111] though a few member states, such as Botswana,^[112]Gabon,^[113]Zambia,^[114] and others expressed support for the resolution.

As a result of Gaddafi's defeat at the Battle of Tripoli, the decisive battle of the war, in August 2011, the Arab League voted to recognise the anti-Gaddafi National Transitional Council as the legitimate government of the country pending elections,^[115] yet although the council has been recognised by several AU member states, including two countries that are also members of the Arab League,^[116][117] the AU Peace and Security Council voted on 26 August 2011 not to recognise it, insisting that a ceasefire be agreed to and a national unity government be formed by both sides in the civil war.^[118] A number of AU member states led by Ethiopia, Nigeria, and Rwanda requested that the AU recognise the NTC as Libya's interim governing authority,^[119][120] and several other AU member states have recognised the NTC regardless of the Peace and Security Council's decision.^[121][122] However, AU member states Algeria^[123] and Zimbabwe^[124] have indicated they will not recognise the NTC, and South Africa has expressed reservations as well.^[125]

On 20 September 2011, the African Union officially recognised the National Transitional Council as the legitimate representative of Libya.^[126]

In post-Gaddafi Libya, the African Union believes it still has an important responsibility to the country despite its failure to contribute to the conflict when it originated. The AU is essentially fighting an uphill battle though because of their failure to support the Libyan rebels. Although the African Union is there to keep peace, it is not a long term solution. The goal, as stated by the AU, is to establish a Libyan government that is sustainable to ensuring the peace in Libya. To achieve some level of peace in Libya, the AU has to moderate peace talks which are aimed at achieving compromises and power sharing accommodations as well.^[108]

Military

Togo

In response to the death of Gnassingbé Eyadéma, President of Togo, on 5 February 2005, AU leaders described the naming of his son Faure Gnassingbé the successor as a military coup.^[127] Togo's constitution calls for the speaker of parliament to succeed the president in the event of his death. By law, the parliament speaker must call national elections to choose a new president within sixty days. The AU's protest forced Gnassingbé to hold elections. Under heavy allegations of election fraud, he was officially elected President on 4 May 2005.

Mauritania

On 3 August 2005, a coup in Mauritania led the African Union to suspend the country from all organisational activities. The Military Council that took control of Mauritania promised to hold elections within two years.^{[citation needed]} These were held in early 2007, the first time that the country had held elections that were generally agreed to be of an acceptable standard. Following the elections, Mauritania's membership of the AU was restored. However, on 6 August 2008, a fresh coup overthrew the government elected in 2007. The AU once again suspended Mauritania from the continental body.^[128] The suspension was once again lifted in 2009 after the military junta agreed with the opposition to organize elections ^[129]

Mali

The Malian army was formed on 1 October 1960 and was supported by the Soviet Union.^[130] In March 2012, a military coup was staged in Mali, when an alliance of Touareg and Islamist forces conquered the north, resulting in a coming to power of the Islamists. This resulted in the deaths of hundreds of Malian soldiers and the loss of control over their camps and positions.^[131] After a military intervention with help from French troops, the region was in control of the Malian army. To reinstall local authorities, the AU helped to form a caretaker government, supporting it and holding presidential elections in Mali in July 2013.^[132] In 2013, a summit for the African Union was held and it was decided that the African Union was going to enlarge their military presence in Mali. The AU decided to do this because of increasing tensions between al-Qaeda forces and the Mali army. There have been several rebel groups that are vying for control of parts of Mali. These rebel groups include the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA), the National Front for the Liberation of Azawad (FLNA), Ganda Koy, Ganda Izo, Ansar ad-Din, and Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM). AU forces have been tasked with counterinsurgency missions in Mali as well as governing presidential elections to ensure as smooth a transition of power as possible.^[133]

Regional conflicts and peacekeeping

One of the objectives of the AU is to "promote peace, security, and stability on the continent".^[134] Among its principles is "Peaceful resolution of conflicts among Member States of the Union through such appropriate means as may be decided upon by the Assembly".^[135] The primary body charged with implementing these objectives and principles is the Peace and Security Council. The PSC has the power, among other things, to authorise peace support missions, to impose sanctions in case of unconstitutional change of government, and to "take initiatives and action it deems appropriate" in response to potential or actual conflicts. The PSC is a decision-making body in its own right, and its decisions are binding on member states.

Article 4(h) of the Constitutive Act, repeated in article 4 of the Protocol to the Constitutive Act on the PSC, also recognises the right of the Union to intervene in member state in circumstances of war crimes, genocide and crimes against humanity. Any decision to intervene in a member state under article 4 of the Constitutive Act will be made by the Assembly on the recommendation of the PSC.

Since it first met in 2004, the PSC has been active in relation to the crises in Darfur, Comoros, Somalia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Côte d'Ivoire and other countries. It has adopted resolutions creating the AU peacekeeping operations in Somalia and Darfur, and imposing sanctions against persons undermining peace and security (such as travel bans and asset freezes against the leaders of the rebellion in Comoros). The Council is in the process of overseeing the establishment of a "standby force" to serve as a permanent African peacekeeping force.^{[citation needed]} Institute for Security Studies, South Africa, March 2008.

The founding treaty of the AU also called for the establishment of the African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA), including the African Standby Force (ASF), which is to be deployed in emergencies. That means, in cases of genocide or other serious human-rights violations, an ASF mission can be launched even against the wishes of the government of the country concerned, as long as it is approved by the AU General Assembly. In the past AU peacekeeping missions, the concept was not yet applied, forces had to be mobilised from member states. The AU is planning on putting the concept into practise by 2015 at the earliest.^{[132][needs update]}

Darfur, Sudan

South Sudanese independence referendum, 2011

In response to the ongoing Darfur conflict in Sudan, the AU has deployed 7,000 peacekeepers, many from Rwanda and Nigeria, to Darfur. While a donor's conference in Addis Ababa in 2005 helped raise funds to sustain the peacekeepers through that year and into 2006, in July 2006 the AU said it would pull out at the end of September when its mandate expires.^[136] Critics of the AU peacekeepers, including Dr. Eric Reeves, have said these forces are largely ineffective due to lack of funds, personnel, and expertise. Monitoring an area roughly the size of France has made it even more difficult to sustain an effective mission. In June 2006, the United States Congress appropriated US$173 million for the AU force. Some, such as the Genocide Intervention Network, have called for UN or NATO intervention to augment and/or replace the AU peacekeepers. The UN has considered deploying a force, though it would not likely enter the country until at least October 2007.^[137] The under-funded and badly equipped AU mission was set to expire on 31 December 2006 but was extended to 30 June 2007 and merged with the United Nations African Union Mission in Darfur in October 2007. In July 2009 the African Union ceased cooperation with the International Criminal Court, refusing to recognise the international arrest warrant it had issued against Sudan's leader, Omar al-Bashir, who was indicted in 2008 for war crimes.^[138]

The AU struggled to have a strategic role in the independence talks and the reconciliation process of South Sudan, anyway due to overwhelming interests of African and non-African powers, its influence is still limited and not consistent.^[139]

Somalia

From the early 1990s up until 2000, Somalia was without a functioning central government. A peace agreement aimed at ending the civil war that broke out following the collapse of the Siad Barre regime was signed in 2006 after many years of peace talks. However, the new government was almost immediately threatened by further violence. In February 2007, the African Union (AU) and European Union (EU) worked together to establish the African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM). The purpose of AMISOM was to create a foundation that would hopefully provide aid to some of Somalia's most vulnerable and keep the peace in the region. They are tasked with everything from protecting federal institutions to facilitating humanitarian relief operations. Much of the AU's opposition comes from an Islamic extremist group named al-Shabaab.^[140] To temporarily shore up the government's military base, starting in March 2007, AU soldiers began arriving in Mogadishu as part of a peacekeeping force that was intended by the AU to eventually be 8,000 strong.^[141] Eritrea recalled its ambassadors to the African Union on 20 November 2009^[142] after the African Union called on the United Nations Security Council to impose sanctions on them due to their alleged support of Somali Islamists attempting to topple the Transitional Federal Government of Somalia, the internationally recognised government of Somalia which holds Somalia's seat on the African Union.^[143] On 22 December 2009, the United Nations Security Council passed UNSCR 1907, which imposed an arms embargo on Eritrea, travel bans on Eritrean leaders, and asset freezes on Eritrean officials. Eritrea strongly criticised the resolution. In January 2011, Eritrea reestablished their mission to the AU in Addis Ababa.^[144]

In the fall of 2011, AMISOM forces, along with Kenyan and Ethiopian forces launched a set of offensive attacks on the al-Shabaab. In these attacks, AMISOM forces were able to reclaim key cities including the Somali capital of Mogadishu. In September 2013, Ethan Bueno de Mesquita, a political scientist, argued that with the help of AMISOM forces, they had made it “nearly impossible for al-Shabaab to hold territory even in its former strongholds in southern Somalia”. Although lots of progress has been made towards peace in the region, it should still be noted that African Union forces’ still get attacked regularly. Despite AMISOM being effective, it is vastly underfunded and many forces lack the resources required. Funding for humanitarian relief and the formation of armies tends to be vastly undercut.^[140]

Anjouan, Comoros

A successful 2008 invasion of Anjouan by AU and Comoros forces to stop self-declared president Mohamed Bacar, whose 2007 re-election was declared illegal.^[145] Prior to the invasion, France helped transport Tanzanian troops but their position in the disagreement was questioned when a French police helicopter was suspected of attempting to sneak Bacar into French exile.^[146] The first wave of troops landed on Anjouan Bay on 25 March and soon took over the airfield in Ouani, ultimately aiming to locate and remove Bacar from office.^[145] On the same day, the airport, capital, and second city were overrun and the presidential palace was deserted.^[147] Bacar escaped and sought asylum in France and the government of Comoros demanded they return him so they may determine his consequence.^[148] Many of Bacar's primary supporters were arrested by the end of March, including Caabi El-Yachroutu Mohamed and Ibrahim Halidi. His asylum request was rejected in 15 May as France agreed to cooperate with the Comoran governments demand.^[149] His presendential position was then occupied by Moussa Toybou adter winning the election in 29 June.^[150]

See also

References

Bibliography

• 
  Strengthening Popular Participation in the African Union: A Guide to AU Structures and Processes, AfriMAP and Oxfam GB, 2010.


• 
  Towards a People Driven African Union: Current Challenges and New Opportunities AfriMAP, AFRODAD and Oxfam GB, January 2007.


• The New African Initiative and the African Union: A Preliminary Assessment and Documentation by Henning Melber, Publisher: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, Sweden;
  ISBN 91-7106-486-9; (October 2002).


• "The African Union, NEPAD and Human Rights: The Missing Agenda" Human Rights Quarterly Vol.26, No.4, November 2004.


• 
  Bibliography on the AU at the Peace Palace Library.

External links

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• 
  Official website


• African Union Mission in the United Nations


• 
  1st African Union Summit July 2002 in Durban, South Africa, website created by SA government


• 
  Southern Africa Regional Poverty Network Page on the AU and NEPAD – many useful links


• 
  Pan-African Perspective Background on Union Government debate


• BBC Profile: African Union


• 
  African Union at Curlie
  


• 
  Africa: 50 years of independence Radio France Internationale in English


• 
  "The broken dream of African unity, Jean-Karim Fall", Radio France Internationale in English