Mount Rushmore
| Mount Rushmore National Memorial | |
|---|---|
IUCN category III (natural monument or feature) | |
 Mount Rushmore with sculptures of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln (left to right) | |
  | |
| Location | Pennington County, South Dakota |
| Nearest city | Keystone, South Dakota |
| Coordinates | 43°52′44″N 103°27′35″W / 43.87889°N 103.45972°W / 43.87889; -103.45972Coordinates: 43°52′44″N 103°27′35″W / 43.87889°N 103.45972°W / 43.87889; -103.45972 |
| Area | 1,278 acres (5.17 km2) |
| Authorized | March 3, 1925 |
| Visitors | 2,431,231 (in 2016)[1] |
| Governing body | National Park Service |
| Website | Mount Rushmore National Memorial |
Mount Rushmore National Memorial is centered around a sculpture carved into the granite face of Mount Rushmore in the Black Hills in Keystone, South Dakota. Sculptor Gutzon Borglum created the sculpture's design and oversaw the project's execution from 1927 to 1941 with the help of his son Lincoln Borglum.[2][3] The sculpture features the 60-foot (18 m) heads of Presidents George Washington (1732–1799), Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826), Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919), and Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865).[4] The four presidents were chosen, respectively, to represent the birth, the growth, the development, and the preservation of the United States.[5] The memorial park covers 1,278.45 acres (2.00 sq mi; 5.17 km2)[6] and is 5,725 feet (1,745 m) above sea level.[7]
South Dakota historian Doane Robinson is credited with conceiving the idea of carving the likenesses of famous people into the Black Hills region of South Dakota in order to promote tourism in the region. His initial idea was to sculpt the Needles; however, Gutzon Borglum rejected the Needles because of the poor quality of the granite and strong opposition from Native American groups. They settled on Mount Rushmore, which also has the advantage of facing southeast for maximum sun exposure. Robinson wanted it to feature American West heroes such as Lewis and Clark, Red Cloud,[8] and Buffalo Bill Cody,[9] but Borglum decided that the sculpture should have broader appeal and chose the four presidents.
US Senator for South Dakota Peter Norbeck sponsored the project and secured federal funding;[10] construction began in 1927, and the presidents' faces were completed between 1934 and 1939. Gutzon Borglum died in March 1941, and his son Lincoln took over as leader of the construction project. Each president was originally to be depicted from head to waist, but lack of funding forced construction to end on October 31, 1941.[11]
Mount Rushmore attracts more than two million visitors annually.[1]
Contents
1 History
1.1 Naming
1.2 Concept, design, and funding
1.3 Construction
1.4 Visitor's center
2 Tourism
3 Hall of Records
4 Conservation
5 Ecology
6 Geography
6.1 Geology
6.2 Soils
6.3 Climate
7 In popular culture
8 Controversy
9 Legacy and commemoration
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
History
Naming
Originally known to the Lakota Sioux as "The Six Grandfathers" (Tunkasila Sakpe) or "Cougar Mountain" (Igmu Tanka Paha);[12][13] American settlers knew it variously as Cougar Mountain, Sugarloaf Mountain, Slaughterhouse Mountain, and Keystone Cliffs. As Six Grandfathers, the mountain was part of the route that Lakota leader Black Elk took in a spiritual journey that culminated at Black Elk Peak. Following a series of military campaigns from 1876 to 1878, the United States asserted control over the area, a claim that is still disputed on the basis of the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie (see section "Controversy" below).
Beginning with a prospecting expedition in 1885 with David Swanzey (husband of Carrie Ingalls), and Bill Challis, wealthy investor Charles E. Rushmore began visiting the area regularly on prospecting and hunting trips. He repeatedly joked with colleagues about naming the mountain after himself.[14][15] The United States Board of Geographic Names officially recognized the name "Mount Rushmore" in June 1930.[citation needed]
Concept, design, and funding
Historian Doane Robinson conceived the idea for Mount Rushmore in 1923 to promote tourism in South Dakota. In 1924, Robinson persuaded sculptor Gutzon Borglum to travel to the Black Hills region to ensure the carving could be accomplished. The original plan was to make the carvings in granite pillars known as the Needles. However, Borglum realized that the eroded Needles were too thin to support sculpting. He chose Mount Rushmore, a grander location, partly because it faced southeast and enjoyed maximum exposure to the sun. Borglum said upon seeing Mount Rushmore, "America will march along that skyline."[16] Borglum had been involved in sculpting the Confederate Memorial Carving, a massive bas-relief memorial to Confederate leaders on Stone Mountain in Georgia, but was in disagreement with the officials there.[17]
After long negotiations involving a Congressional delegation and President Calvin Coolidge, the project received Congressional approval on March 3, 1925.[16] The carving started in 1927 and ended in 1941 with no fatalities.[18][19]
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Construction
Between October 4, 1927, and October 31, 1941, Gutzon Borglum and 400 workers[20] sculpted the colossal 60-foot-high (18 m) carvings of U.S. presidents George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln to represent the first 130 years of American history. These presidents were selected by Borglum because of their role in preserving the Republic and expanding its territory.[16][21] The carving of Mount Rushmore involved the use of dynamite, followed by the process of "honeycombing", a process where workers drill holes close together, allowing small pieces to be removed by hand.[22] In total, about 450,000 short tons (410,000 t) of rock were blasted off the mountainside.[23] The image of Thomas Jefferson was originally intended to appear in the area at Washington's right, but after the work there was begun, the rock was found to be unsuitable, so the work on the Jefferson figure was dynamited, and a new figure was sculpted to Washington's left.[16]
The Chief Carver of the mountain was Luigi del Bianco, artisan and headstone carver in Port Chester, NY. Del Bianco emigrated to the U.S. from Friuli in Italy, and was chosen to work on this project because of his remarkable skill at etching emotions and personality into his carved portraits.[2][3]
In 1933, the National Park Service took Mount Rushmore under its jurisdiction. Julian Spotts helped with the project by improving its infrastructure. For example, he had the tram upgraded so it could reach the top of Mount Rushmore for the ease of workers. By July 4, 1934, Washington's face had been completed and was dedicated. The face of Thomas Jefferson was dedicated in 1936, and the face of Abraham Lincoln was dedicated on September 17, 1937. In 1937, a bill was introduced in Congress to add the head of civil-rights leader Susan B. Anthony, but a rider was passed on an appropriations bill requiring federal funds be used to finish only those heads that had already been started at that time.[24] In 1939, the face of Theodore Roosevelt was dedicated.
The Sculptor's Studio – a display of unique plaster models and tools related to the sculpting – was built in 1939 under the direction of Borglum. Borglum died from an embolism in March 1941. His son, Lincoln Borglum, continued the project. Originally, it was planned that the figures would be carved from head to waist,[25] but insufficient funding forced the carving to end. Borglum had also planned a massive panel in the shape of the Louisiana Purchase commemorating in eight-foot-tall gilded letters the Declaration of Independence, U.S. Constitution, Louisiana Purchase, and seven other territorial acquisitions from Alaska to Texas to the Panama Canal Zone.[21] In total, the entire project cost US$989,992.32.[26]
Visitor's center
Harold Spitznagel and Cecil Doty designed the original visitor center, finished in 1957.[27] These structures were part of the Mission 66 effort to improve visitors' facilities at national parks and monuments across the country.[28]
Ten years of redevelopment work culminated with the completion of extensive visitor facilities and sidewalks in 1998, such as a Visitor Center, the Lincoln Borglum Museum, and the Presidential Trail. Maintenance of the memorial requires mountain climbers to monitor and seal cracks annually. Due to budget constraints, the memorial is not regularly cleaned to remove lichens. However, on July 8, 2005, Alfred Kärcher GmbH, a German manufacturer of pressure washing and steam cleaning machines, conducted a free cleanup operation which lasted several weeks, using pressurized water at over 200 °F (93 °C).[29]
On October 15, 1966, Mount Rushmore was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. A 500-word essay giving the history of the United States by Nebraska student William Andrew Burkett was selected as the college-age group winner in a 1934 competition, and that essay was placed on the Entablature on a bronze plate in 1973.[24][30] In 1991, President George H. W. Bush officially dedicated Mount Rushmore.[31]
Tourism
| Year | Visitors |
|---|---|
| 1941 | 393,000 |
| 1950 | 740,499 |
| 1960 | 1,067,000 |
| 1970 | 1,965,700 |
| 1980 | 1,284,888 |
| 1990 | 1,671,673 |
| 2000 | 1,868,876 |
| 2010 | 2,331,237 |
Tourism is South Dakota's second-largest industry, and Mount Rushmore is the state's top tourist attraction.[32] In 2012, 2,185,447 people visited the park.[1]
In the 1950s and 1960s, local Lakota Sioux elder Benjamin Black Elk (son of medicine man Black Elk, who had been present at the Battle of the Little Bighorn) was known as the "Fifth Face of Mount Rushmore", posing for photographs with thousands of tourists daily in his native attire. The South Dakota State Historical Society notes that he was one of the most photographed people in the world over that twenty-year period.[33]
Hall of Records
A copy of one of the panels entombed in the Hall of Records
Borglum originally envisioned a grand Hall of Records where America's greatest historical documents and artifacts could be protected and shown to tourists. He managed to start the project, but cut only 70 feet (21 m) into the rock before work stopped in 1939 to focus on the faces. In 1998, an effort to complete Borglum's vision resulted in a repository being constructed inside the mouth of the cave housing 16 enamel panels that contained biographical and historical information about Mount Rushmore as well as the texts of the documents Borglum wanted to preserve there. The vault consists of a teakwood box (housing the 16 panels) inside of a titanium vault placed in the ground with a granite capstone.[34][35] The text found on the 16 panels can be found below.
Conservation
The ongoing conservation of the site is overseen by the National Park Service.[36] Physical efforts to conserve the monument have included replacement of the sealant applied originally by Gutzon Borglum, which had proved ineffective at providing water resistance. The components of Borglum's sealant included linseed oil, granite dust, and white lead, but a modern silicone replacement is now used, disguised with granite dust.
In 1998, electronic monitoring devices were installed to track movement in the topology of the sculpture to an accuracy of three millimeters. The site was digitally recorded in 2009 using a terrestrial laser scanning method as part of the international Scottish Ten project, providing a high resolution record to aid the conservation of the site. This data was made publicly accessible online.[37]
Ecology
The Black Hills opposite Mount Rushmore.
The flora and fauna of Mount Rushmore are similar to those of the rest of the Black Hills region of South Dakota. Birds including the turkey vulture, golden eagle, bald eagle,red-tailed hawk, swallows and white-throated swifts fly around Mount Rushmore, occasionally making nesting spots in the ledges of the mountain. Smaller birds, including songbirds, nuthatches, woodpeckers and flycatchers[disambiguation needed] inhabit the surrounding pine forests.[38] Terrestrial mammals include the mouse, least chipmunk, red squirrel, skunk, porcupine, raccoon, beaver, badger, coyote, bighorn sheep, bobcat, elk, mule deer, yellow-bellied marmot, and American bison.[38][39] The striped chorus frog, western chorus frog, and northern leopard frog also inhabit the area,[40] along with several species of snake. Grizzly Bear Brook and Starling Basin Brook, the two streams in the memorial, support fish such as the longnose dace and the brook trout.[citation needed]Mountain goats are not indigenous to the region. Those living near Mount Rushmore are descendants of a tribe that Canada gifted to Custer State Park in 1924, which later escaped.[38][41][42]
At lower elevations, coniferous trees, mainly the ponderosa pine, surround most of the monument, providing shade from the sun. Other trees include the bur oak, the Black Hills spruce, and the cottonwood. Nine species of shrubs grow near Mount Rushmore. There is also a wide variety of wildflowers, including especially the snapdragon, sunflower, and violet. Towards higher elevations, plant life becomes sparser.[42] However, only approximately five percent of the plant species found in the Black Hills are indigenous to the region.[43]
The area receives about 18 inches (460 mm) of precipitation on average per year, enough to support abundant animal and plant life. Trees and other plants help to control surface runoff. Dikes, seeps, and springs help to dam up water that is flowing downhill, providing watering spots for animals. In addition, stones like sandstone and limestone help to hold groundwater, creating aquifers.[44]
A study of the fire scars present in tree ring samples indicates that forest fires occur in the ponderosa forests surrounding Mount Rushmore around every 27 years. Large fires are not common. Most events have been ground fires that serve to clear forest debris.[45] The area is a climax community. Recent[when?]pine beetle infestations have threatened the forest.[39]
Geography
Geology
Mount Rushmore, showing the full size of the mountain and the scree of rocks from the sculpting and construction.
Mount Rushmore is largely composed of granite. The memorial is carved on the northwest margin of the Black Elk Peak granite batholith in the Black Hills of South Dakota, so the geologic formations of the heart of the Black Hills region are also evident at Mount Rushmore. The batholith magma intruded into the pre-existing mica schist rocks during the Proterozoic, 1.6 billion years ago.[46] Coarse grained pegmatite dikes are associated with the granite intrusion of Black Elk Peak and are visibly lighter in color, thus explaining the light-colored streaks on the foreheads of the presidents.
The Black Hills granites were exposed to erosion during the Neoproterozoic, but were later buried by sandstone and other sediments during the Cambrian. Remaining buried throughout the Paleozoic, they were re-exposed again during the Laramide orogeny around 70 million years ago.[46] The Black Hills area was uplifted as an elongated geologic dome.[47] Subsequent erosion stripped the granite of the overlying sediments and the softer adjacent schist. Some schist does remain and can be seen as the darker material just below the sculpture of Washington.
The tallest mountain in the region is Black Elk Peak (7,242 ft or 2,207 m). Borglum selected Mount Rushmore as the site for several reasons. The rock of the mountain is composed of smooth, fine-grained granite. The durable granite erodes only 1 inch (25 mm) every 10,000 years, thus was more than sturdy enough to support the sculpture and its long-term exposure.[16] The mountain's height of 5,725 feet (1,745 m) above sea level[7] made it suitable, and because it faces the southeast, the workers also had the advantage of sunlight for most of the day.
Soils
The Mount Rushmore area is underlain by well drained alfisol soils of very gravelly loam (Mocmount) to silt loam (Buska) texture, brown to dark grayish brown.[48]
Climate
Mount Rushmore has a humid continental climate (Dwb in the Köppen climate classification). It is inside a USDA Plant Hardiness Zone of 5a, meaning certain plant life in the area can withstand a low temperature of no less than −20 °F (−29 °C).[49]
The two wettest months of the year are May and June. Orographic lift causes brief but strong afternoon thunderstorms during the summer.[50]
| Climate data for Mount Rushmore National Memorial, 1981-2011 normals | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °F (°C) | 68 (20) | 68 (20) | 78 (26) | 85 (29) | 93 (34) | 99 (37) | 100 (38) | 99 (37) | 97 (36) | 86 (30) | 75 (24) | 67 (19) | 100 (38) |
| Average high °F (°C) | 36.3 (2.4) | 36.7 (2.6) | 43.2 (6.2) | 50.7 (10.4) | 60.7 (15.9) | 71.0 (21.7) | 79.1 (26.2) | 78.1 (25.6) | 67.8 (19.9) | 54.9 (12.7) | 42.9 (6.1) | 35.3 (1.8) | 54.7 (12.6) |
| Daily mean °F (°C) | 27.5 (−2.5) | 27.8 (−2.3) | 33.9 (1.1) | 41.4 (5.2) | 51.1 (10.6) | 61.1 (16.2) | 69.0 (20.6) | 67.9 (19.9) | 58.0 (14.4) | 45.7 (7.6) | 34.5 (1.4) | 26.7 (−2.9) | 45.4 (7.4) |
| Average low °F (°C) | 18.7 (−7.4) | 19.0 (−7.2) | 24.6 (−4.1) | 32.0 (0.0) | 41.6 (5.3) | 51.3 (10.7) | 58.9 (14.9) | 57.7 (14.3) | 48.2 (9.0) | 36.5 (2.5) | 26.0 (−3.3) | 18.1 (−7.7) | 36.0 (2.2) |
| Record low °F (°C) | −38 (−39) | −29 (−34) | −12 (−24) | 1 (−17) | 14 (−10) | 27 (−3) | 35 (2) | 33 (1) | 19 (−7) | 1 (−17) | −12 (−24) | −31 (−35) | −38 (−39) |
| Average precipitation inches (mm) | 0.38 (9.7) | 0.70 (18) | 1.19 (30) | 2.23 (57) | 4.22 (107) | 3.41 (87) | 2.90 (74) | 1.99 (51) | 1.81 (46) | 1.68 (43) | 0.62 (16) | 0.43 (11) | 21.56 (549.7) |
| Average snowfall inches (cm) | 5.8 (15) | 7.9 (20) | 10.4 (26) | 10.8 (27) | 1.2 (3.0) | 0.1 (0.25) | 0.0 (0.0) | 0.0 (0.0) | 0.6 (1.5) | 3.6 (9.1) | 6.2 (16) | 5.8 (15) | 52.4 (132.85) |
| Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01) | 4.3 | 4.7 | 6.3 | 8.2 | 11.9 | 12.6 | 11.4 | 9.3 | 7.4 | 6.8 | 4.4 | 4.2 | 91.5 |
| Average snowy days (≥ 0.1) | 3.9 | 3.8 | 3.9 | 3.1 | 0.6 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.3 | 1.4 | 2.7 | 3.4 | 23.1 |
| Source #1: [51] | |||||||||||||
| Source #2: [52] | |||||||||||||
In popular culture
Roger Thornhill (Cary Grant) and Eve Kendall (Eva Marie Saint) dangle precariously from the sculpture of George Washington in the 1959 film North by Northwest. Studio mockups were intercut with actual monument footage for the filming.
Mount Rushmore commemorative stamp of 1952
Because of its fame as a monument, Mount Rushmore has been depicted in multiple places in popular culture. It is often depicted as a cover for a secret location; shown with faces removed or modified (as in Superman II), or added; or parodied. Trey Parker and Matt Stone used the location as the headquarters for their film Team America: World Police. National Treasure: Book of Secrets also depicts this location as a secret cover for a fictional gold city. The memorial was also famously used as the location of the climactic chase scene in Alfred Hitchcock's 1959 movie North by Northwest.[53]Deep Purple's breakthrough album, 1970's In Rock, parodies the sculpture.[54][55]
Controversy
The Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) had granted the Black Hills to the Lakota people in perpetuity, but the United States took the area from the tribe after the Great Sioux War of 1876. Members of the American Indian Movement led an occupation of the monument in 1971, naming it "Mount Crazy Horse", and Lakota holy man John Fire Lame Deer planted a prayer staff on top of the mountain. Lame Deer said that the staff formed a symbolic shroud over the presidents' faces "which shall remain dirty until the treaties concerning the Black Hills are fulfilled."[56]
In 2004, Gerard Baker was appointed as superintendent of the park, the first Native American in that role. Baker has stated that he will open up more "avenues of interpretation", and that the four presidents are "only one avenue and only one focus."[57] The Crazy Horse Memorial is being constructed elsewhere in the Black Hills to commemorate the Native American leader as a response to Mount Rushmore. Upon completion, it will be larger than Mount Rushmore and has the support of Lakota chiefs. The Crazy Horse Memorial Foundation has rejected offers of federal funds, but it is the subject of controversy, even among Native American tribes.[58]
Legacy and commemoration
26-cent airmail stamp
On August 11, 1952, the U.S. Post Office issued the Mount Rushmore Memorial commemorative stamp on the 25th anniversary of the dedication of the Mt. Rushmore National Memorial in the Black Hills of South Dakota.[59] On January 2, 1974, a stamp depicting the monument was also issued.[60]
See also
- List of colossal sculpture in situ
South Dakota portal
South Dakota portal
References
Notes
^ abcd "Park Statistics". National Park Service. Retrieved January 23, 2018..mw-parser-output cite.citationfont-style:inherit.mw-parser-output .citation qquotes:"""""""'""'".mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registrationcolor:#555.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration spanborder-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output code.cs1-codecolor:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-errordisplay:none;font-size:100%.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-errorfont-size:100%.mw-parser-output .cs1-maintdisplay:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-formatfont-size:95%.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-leftpadding-left:0.2em.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-rightpadding-right:0.2em
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^ '!, episode 5x08 "Mount Rushmore", May 10, 2007
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^ "Untold Stories Discussion Guide: Baker and Mount Rushmore" (PDF). The National Parks: America's Best Idea. PBS. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 18, 2015.Mount Rushmore – a rocky outcropping the Lakota had called 'The Six Grandfathers,' named for the earth, the sky, and the four directions
^ Keystone Area Historical Society Keystone Characters Archived September 9, 2006, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved October 3, 2006.
^ Belanger, Ian A.; Kennedy, Sally; Allison; McMeen, Melissa; Arnold, John (April 21, 2002). "Mt. Rushmore — presidents on the rocks". Archived from the original on May 14, 2006. Retrieved January 11, 2016.
^ abcde Carving History (October 2, 2004). National Park Service.
^ "People & Events: The Carving of Stone Mountain". American Experience. PBS. Archived from the original on April 13, 2010. Retrieved March 17, 2010.
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^ ab Albert Boime, "Patriarchy Fixed in Stone: Gutzon Borglum's 'Mount Rushmore'," American Art, Vol. 5, No. 1/2. (Winter – Spring, 1991), pp. 142–67.
^ "Honeycombing process explained from". nps.gov. June 14, 2004. Archived from the original on August 1, 2008. Retrieved March 20, 2010.
^ "Geology Fieldnotes". nps.gov. January 4, 2005. Retrieved October 22, 2010.
^ ab American Experience "Timeline: Mount Rushmore" (2002). Retrieved March 20, 2006.
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^ "Popular South Dakota Attractions >>South Dakota". southdakota.com. Retrieved March 21, 2015.
^ Kilen Ode, Jeanne (1984). Dakota Images: Benjamin Black Elk (PDF). 14. South Dakota State Historical Society.
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^ https://www.nps.gov/moru/learn/historyculture/hall-of-records.htm
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^ "Amphibians". National Park Service. National Park Service. Retrieved January 4, 2014.
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^ "Nature & Science – Plants". NPS. December 6, 2006. Retrieved March 17, 2010.
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^ ab Geologic Activity. National Park Service.
^ Irvin, James R. Great Plains Gallery (2001). Retrieved March 16, 2006.
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^ John Brady (1981). The Craft of the Screenwriter. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671252291., p. 201.
^ David Hatch, Stephen Millward (1989). From Blues to Rock: An Analytical History of Pop Music. Manchester University Press. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-719-02349-1.
^ Neil Brodie (2004). Material Engagements: Studies in Honour of Colin Renfrew. McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research. p. 72. ISBN 978-1-902-93726-7.
^ Matthew Glass, "Producing Patriotic Inspiration at Mount Rushmore," Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 62, No. 2. (Summer, 1994), pp. 265–283.
^ David Melmer (December 13, 2004). "Historic changes for Mount Rushmore". Indiancountrytoday. Archived from the original on August 8, 2010. Retrieved March 17, 2010.
^ Lame Deer, John (Fire) and Richard Erdoes. Lame Deer Seeker of Visions. Simon and Schuster, New York, New York, 1972. Paperback
ISBN 0-671-55392-5
^ "3c Mt. Rushmore single". Smithsonian National Postal Museum. Retrieved July 1, 2014.
^ Scotts United States Stamp catalogue, 1982. Scott's Publishing Company. 1981. ISBN 0-89487-042-4., p. 289.
Further reading
Larner, Jesse. Mount Rushmore: An Icon Reconsidered New York: Nation Books, 2002.- Taliaferro, John. Great White Fathers: The Story of the Obsessive Quest to Create Mount Rushmore. New York: PublicAffairs, c2002.
ISBN 9781586482053. Puts the creation of the monument into a historical and cultural context. - Coutant, Arnaud, "Les Visages de l'Amérique, les constructeurs d'une démocratie fédérale", Mare et Martin, 2014 (
ISBN 9782849341605). French Study about the Four Presidents, Life, presidency, influence about American political evolution. https://web.archive.org/web/20160311133645/http://www.mareetmartin.com/livre/_les-visages-de-l-amerique
The National Parks: Index 2001–2003. Washington: United States Department of the Interior
"Making Mount Rushmore". Oh, Ranger!. APN Media. Retrieved January 27, 2013.
Dobrzynski, Judith H. (July 15, 2006). "A Monumental Achievement". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved January 27, 2013.
Buckingham, Matthew (Summer 2002). "The Six Grandfathers, Paha Sapa, in the Year 502,002 C.E." Cabinet Magazine. Immaterial Incorporated. Retrieved January 27, 2013.
"Luigi Del Bianco: chief stone carver on Mount Rushmore, 1933–1940". Lou Del Bianco. Retrieved January 27, 2013.
"Caring For A Monumental Sculpture". National Park Service. Retrieved July 8, 2013.
External links
Media related to Mount Rushmore National Memorial at Wikimedia Commons
Mount Rushmore National Memorial travel guide from Wikivoyage- Official website
Media related to Mount Rushmore National Memorial at Wikimedia Commons
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