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Pair skating

German pair skaters Anna Hübler and Heinrich Burger, 1908 Olympics
Highest governing body	International Skating Union
Characteristics
Team members	Pairs
Mixed gender	Yes
Equipment	Figure skates
Presence
Olympic	Part of the Summer Olympics in 1908 and 1920; Part of the first Winter Olympics in 1924 to today

Pair skating is a figure skating discipline. The International Skating Union (ISU) defines pair skating as "the skating of two persons in unison who perform their movements in such harmony with each other as to give the impression of genuine Pair Skating as compared with independent Single Skating".^[1] The ISU also states that a pairs team must consist of "one Lady and one Man".^[2] Pair skating, along with men's and women's single skating, has been an Olympic discipline since figure skating, the oldest Winter Olympic sport, was introduced at the 1908 Olympic Games in London. The ISU World Figure Skating Championships introduced pair skating in 1908.

Like the other disciplines, pair skating competitions consist of two segments, the Short program and the free skating program. There are seven required elements in the short program, which lasts 2 minutes and 40 seconds for both junior and senior pair teams. Free skating for pairs "consists of a well balanced program composed and skated to music of the pair's own choice for a specified period of time".^[3] It also should contain "especially typical Pair Skating moves" such as pair spins, lifts, partner assisted jumps, spirals and other similar moves, "linked harmoniously by steps and other movements".^[3] Its duration, like the other disciplines, is 4 minutes for senior teams, and 3 1/2 minutes for junior teams. Pair skating required elements include lifts, twist lifts, throw jumps, jumps, spin combinations, death spirals, step sequences, and choreographic sequences. The elements performed by pairs teams must be "linked together by connecting steps of a different nature"^[1] and by other comparable movements and with a variety of holds and positions. Pair skaters must only execute the prescribed elements; if they do not, the extra or unprescribed elements will not be counted in their score. Only the first attempt of an element will be included. Violations in pair skating include falls, time, music, and clothing.

Background

German pair team Madge Syers and Edgar Syers at the 1908 Olympics

Liudmila Belousova and Oleg Protopopov (the "Protopopovs"), in 1968

The International Skating Union (ISU) defines pair skating as "the skating of two persons in unison who perform their movements in such harmony with each other as to give the impression of genuine Pair Skating as compared with independent Single Skating".^[1] The ISU also states that a pairs team must consist of "one Lady and one Man"^[2] and that "attention should be paid to the selection of an appropriate partner".^{[1][note 1]}

Pair skating, along with men's and women's single skating, has been an Olympic discipline since figure skating, the oldest Winter Olympic sport, was introduced at the 1908 Olympic Games in London.^[4] The ISU World Figure Skating Championships introduced pair skating, along with women's singles, also in 1908.^[5] According to writer Ellyn Kestnbaum, the rising popularity of skating during the 19th century led to the development of figure skating techniques, especially the "various forms of hand-in-hand skating that would become the basis of pair skating."^[6]Madge Syers, the first female figure skater to compete and win internationally, stated that from the beginning of the introduction of pair skating in international competitions, it was a popular sport for audience to watch, and that "if the pair are well matched and clever performers, it is undoubtedly the most attractive to watch".^[7] British pair skater Madge Syers stated that Viennese skaters were responsible for pair skating's popularity at the beginning of the 20th century. Syers also credited the Austrians for adding dance moves to pair skating.^[7]

German pair skater Heinrich Burger, in his article in Irving Brokaw's The Art of Skating (1915), stated that he and his partner, Anna Hübler, inserted figures skated by single skaters into "our several dances according to the music"^{[note 2]} until the figures became more complicated and developed into a different appearance; as Burger put it, "the fundamental character of the figure, however, has remained the same".^[9] Hübler and Burger were the first Olympic gold medalists in pair skating in 1908; they also won the 1908 and 1910 World Championships. In 1936, Maxi Herber and Ernst Baier won the gold medal at the Olympics and went on to win the World Championships from 1936-1939.^[10]

Soviet and Russian domination in pair skating began in the 1950s and continued throughout the 1900s. Only five non-Soviet or Russian teams won the World Championships after 1965, until 2010.^[11] In 1988, The New York Times reported that since the 1964 Olympics in Innsbruck, Soviet pair teams had won gold medals in seven consecutive Olympics.^[12] Kestnbaum credited the Soviets for emphasizing ballet, theater, and folk dance in all disciplines of figure skating, noting the influence of Soviet pair team and married couple Liudmila Belousova and Oleg Protopopov. The Protopopovs, as they were called, won gold medals at the 1964 and 1968 Olympics, as well as the 1968 World Championships, "raised by several degrees the level of translating classical dance to the ice".^[13]Irina Rodnina, with her partner Alexei Ulanov and later Alexander Zaitsev, also from the Soviet Union, dominated pair skating throughout the 1970s and "led the trend of female pair skaters as risk-taking athletes".^[13]

Pair skating, which has never included a compulsory phase like the other figure skating disciplines, did not require a short program until the early 1960s, when the ISU "instituted a short program of required moves" as the first part of pair competitions. The arrangement of the specific moves, also unlike compulsory figures for single skaters and the compulsory dance for ice dancers, were up to each pair team. The short programs introduced in single men and women competitions in 1973 were modeled after the pair skating short program, and the structure of competitions in both single and pair competitions have been identical since the elimination of compulsory figures in 1990.^[14]

A judging scandal at the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah "ushered in sweeping reforms in the scoring system"^[15] of figure skating competitions. The scandal, which centered around Canadian pair team Jamie Sale and David Pelletier and Russian pair team Elena Berezhnaya and Anton Sikharulidze, brought about the end of the 6.0 scoring system and the implementation of the ISU Judging System, starting in 2004.^[15][16]

Competition segments

Short program

Russian pair team Evgenia Tarasova and Vladimir Morozov perform their short program at the 2018 European Championships in Moscow, Russia

The short program is the first segment of single skating, pair skating, and synchronized skating in international competitions, including all ISU championships, the Olympic Winter Games, the Winter Youth Games, qualifying competitions for the Olympic Winter Games, and ISU Grand Prix events for both junior and senior-level skaters (including the finals).^[2][17] The short program must be skated before the free skate, the second component in competitions.^[18][17] The short program lasts, for both senior and junior pair skaters, 2 minutes and 40 seconds.^[19] Vocal music with lyrics has been allowed in pair skating and in all disciplines since the 2014-2015 season.^[20]

Both junior and senior pair skaters have seven required elements: a lift, a twist lift, a throw jump, a jump; a solo spin combination, a death spiral, and a step sequence.^[21]
The sequence of the elements is optional. Like single skaters, the short programs of pair teams must be skated in harmony with the music, which they choose.^[22] The short program for pair skating was introduced at the 1963 European Championships, the 1964 World Championships, and the Olympics in 1968; previously, pair skaters only had to perform the free skating program in competitions.^[23]

Russian team Evgenia Tarasova and Vladimir Morozov hold the highest pair skating short program score of 78.47 points, which they earned at the 2018 Rostelecom Cup.^{[24][note 3]}

Free skating

French pair team Vanessa James and Morgan Ciprès perform their free skating program at the 2016 European Championships

According to the ISU, free skating for pairs "consists of a well balanced program composed and skated to music of the pair's own choice for a specified period of time".^[3] The ISU also considers a well-done free skate one that contains both single skating moves performed either in parallel (called "shadow skating") or symmetrically (called "mirror skating"). It also should contain "especially typical Pair Skating moves" such as pair spins, lifts, partner assisted jumps, spirals and other similar moves, "linked harmoniously by steps and other movements".^{[3][note 4]}

A well-balanced free skate for senior pairs must consist of the following: up to three lifts, not all from the same group, with the lifting arm or arms fully extended;^{[note 5]} only one twist lift, only one solo jump; only one jump sequence or combination; only one pair spin combination; only one death spiral of a different type than what the skaters performed during their short program; and only one choreographic sequence.^[28] Its duration, like the other disciplines, is 4 minutes for senior teams, and 3 1/2 minutes for junior teams.^[29][30]

French team Vanessa James and Morgan Cipres hold the highest pairs free skating program score of 147.30 points, which they earned at Skate Canada in 2018.^[31]

Competition requirements

Pair skating required elements include lifts, twist lifts, throw jumps, jumps, spin combinations, death spirals, step sequences, and choreographic sequences.^[1] The elements performed by pairs teams must be "linked together by connecting steps of a different nature"^[1] and by other comparable movements and with a variety of holds and positions. The team does not have to always execute the same movements and can separate from time to time, but they have to "give an impression of unison and harmony of composition of program and of execution of the skating".^[1] They must limit movements executed on two feet, and must fully use the entire ice surface.^[1] The ISU also states, about how programs are performed by pair skating teams, "Harmonious steps and connecting movements, in time to the music, should be maintained throughout the program".^[1]

Pair lifts

Russian pair team Maria Mukhortova and Maxim Trankov perform a pair lift at the 2010 European Championships

There are five groups of lifts, categorized by their level of difficulty, and determined by the hold at the moment the woman passes the man's shoulder.^[32][27] For the 2018-2019 season, group four lifts are required in pair skating short programs for both juniors and seniors, and only the prescribed overhead lift is allowed. In the free skate, seniors can perform up to three lifts, but not all from the same group; juniors can perform up to two lifts, also not all from the same group.^[33] The lifts in groups three, four, and five require that the full extension of the lifting arm or arms be accomplished.^[27] If senior pair teams execute two lifts with take-offs that have different natures, the lifts are categorized as Group Five lifts; if they are the same, the second lift is not a Group-Five lift.^[28] Judges look for the following when evaluating pair lifts: speed of entry and exit; control of the woman's free leg when she is exiting out of the lift, with the goal of keeping the leg high and sweeping; the position of the woman in the air; the man's footwork; quick and easy changes of position; and the maintenance of flow throughout the lift.^[34]

Judges begin counting how many revolutions pair teams execute from the moment when the woman leaves the ice until when the man's arm (or arms) begin to bend after he has made a full extension and the woman begins to descend. If he is in a spread-eagle position or in another sideways position, the rotation count is determined by the position of his front foot at the moment the woman leaves the ice.^[36] When the man changes the direction of the rotation of the lift, it must include one rotation before and after the change, and only once per program.^[37]

A complete pair skating lift must include full extension of the lifting arm or arms, if required for the type of lift being performed. Small lifts, or ones in which the man does not raise his hands higher than his shoulders, or lifts that include movements in which the man holds the woman by the legs, are also allowed. Small lifts can be either descending and ascending or rotational in character. The man must complete at least one revolution.^[27] A simple take-off includes, but is not limited to, a change of hand hold during ascent. A difficult take-off includes, but is not limited to, the following: a somersault take-off; a one-hand take-off, an Ina Bauer, a spread-eagle, spirals as the entry curve executed by one or both partners; and a dance lift followed immediately by a pair lift take-off, but when the woman does not touch the ice between each lift. Simple landings include a change of hold during the descent. Difficult landings include, but are not limited to, the following: somersaults; one-hand landings; variations in holds; and spread-eagle positions of the man during dismounting, but "only if the spread-eagle lasts long enough: from the moment the Man starts bending his arms till the moment the Lady is placed on the ice".^[38]

East Germans Mandy Wötzel and Axel Rauschenbach, 1988

The only times pair skating partners can give each other assistance in executing lifts are "only through hand-to-hand, hand-to-arm, hand-to-body and hand to upper part of the leg (above the knee) grips".^[27] They are allowed changes of hold, or going from one of the grips to another or from one hand to another in a one-hand hold, during lifts.^[27] There must be one full revolution after a change of hold is made for it to count towards a team's score, but the man can change holds from his left to right arms, or from his right to left arms, with at least one revolution in each hold. Teams earn fewer points if the woman's position and a change of hold is executed at the same time.^[36] They earn more points if the execution of the woman's position and the change in hold are "significantly different from lift to lift".^[36] Teams can increase the difficulty of lifts in any group by using a one-hand hold.^[33]

There are three types of positions performed by the woman: upright, or when her upper body is vertical; the star, or when she faces sideways with her upper body parallel to the ice; and the platter, or when her position is flat and facing up or down with her upper body parallel to the ice. The lifts ends when the man's arm or arms begins to bend after he completes a full extension and when the woman begins to descend.^[27] If the woman changes position", from upright with her head upwards to upright with her head downwards, or from "Platter to Platter, Star to Star with half a rotation of the lady in any direction".^[38] Pair teams earn more points if the variation of the woman's position in the air "significantly impacts the balance of the Lady in the lift or requires specific strength and/or flexibility", and "only if the variations are significantly different from lift to lift".^[37]

Carry lifts are defined as "the simple carrying of a partner without rotation"^[28] and do not count as overhead lifts; instead, they are considered as transition elements. They occur when the man makes at least one continuous revolution, although only the first carry counts towards their score.^[28] Carry lifts do not count as a features in the short program and count towards the score only the first time they are performed during the free skate.^[35] Only half a revolution made by the man is allowed on the carry lift's take-off and/or exit. There are no restrictions of holds in carry lifts, and the "carrying of one partner by the other on the back, shoulders or knees is allowed".^[28] A simple carry lift lasts at least three seconds. A difficult carry includes at least one of the following features, for at least three seconds: the man skates on one foot, he performs crossovers, or he holds his partner on one arm, and he performs spread eagles or similar moves.^[35]

Twist lifts

Tong Jian and Pang Qing from China perform a twist lift at the 2010 Olympics

Skate Canada calls twist lifts "sometimes the most thrilling and exciting component in pair skating".^[34] They can also be most difficult movement to perform correctly.^[34] According to the ISU, the "Lady must be caught in the air at the waist by the Man prior to landing and be assisted to a smooth landing on the ice on a backward outside edge on one foot"^[39] during a twist lift. In their short programs, both senior and junior pair teams can perform two or three rotations in the air, but the woman can only perform either a flip or lutz during her take-off.^[40] In the free skate, pair teams must include one twist lift, and the woman's take-off can include the lutz, flip, toe loop, or axel. There are no limits to the numbers of revolutions executed.^[28][34][41]

Judges look for the following when evaluating twist lifts: speed at entry and exit; whether or not the woman performs a split position while on her way to the top of the twist lift; her height once she gets there; clean rotations; a clean catch by the male (accomplished by placing both hands at the woman's waist and without any part of her upper body touching him); and a one-foot exit executed by both partners. Pair teams can earn more points if the woman executes a split position (each leg is at least 45° from her body axis and her legs are straight or almost straight) before rotating. They also earn more points when the man's arms are sideways and straight or almost straight after he releases the woman. They lose points for not having enough rotations, one-half a rotation or more.^[34][41]

The first quadruple twist lift performed in international competition was by Russian pair team Marina Cherkasova and Sergei Shakhrai at the European Championship in 1977.^[42]

Solo jumps and throw jumps

Solo jumps

Pairs teams, both juniors and seniors, must perform one solo jump during their short programs; it can include a double flip or double axel for juniors, and any kind of double or triple jump for seniors. In the free skate, both juniors and seniors must perform only one solo jump and only one jump combination or sequence.^{[note 7]} Skaters must, during a jump combination, make sure that they land on the same foot they took off on, and that they execute a full rotation on the ice between the jumps. They can, however, execute a Euler between the two jumps. When the Euler is performed separately, it is considered an unlisted jump.^[43] Junior pairs, during their short programs, earn no points for the solo jump if they perform a different jump than what is required. Both junior and senior pairs earn no points if, during their free skating programs, they repeat a jump with over two revolutions.^[44]

All jumps are considered in the order in which they were performed. If the partners do not execute the same number of revolutions during a solo jump or part of a jump sequence or combination (which can consist of two or three jumps), only the jump with the fewer revolutions will be counted in their score.^[45] The double axel and all triple and quadruple jumps, which have more than two revolutions, must be different from one another, although jump sequences and combinations can include the same two jumps. Extra jumps that do not fulfill the requirements are not counted in the team's score.^[28] They are allowed, however, to execute the same two jumps during a jump combination or sequence. If they perform any or both jump or jumps incorrectly, only the incorrectly-done jump is not counted and it is not considered a jump sequence or combination. Both partner can execute two solo jumps during their short programs, but the second jump is worth less points than the first.^[44]

A jump attempt, in which one or both partners execute a clear preparation for a take-off but step to the entry edge or place their skate's toe pick into the ice and leaves the ice with or without a turn, counts as one jump element. If the partners execute an unequal number of rotations during a solo jump or as part of a jump combination or sequence, the jump with the lesser number of revolutions will be counted. They receive no points if they perform different types of jumps. A small hop or a jump with up to one-half revolution (considered "decoration") is not marked as a jump and called a "transition" instead. Non-listed jumps do not count as jumps, either, but can also be called a transition and can be used as "a special entrance to the jump".^[46] If the partners execute a spin and a jump back to back, or vice versa, they are considered separate elements and the team is awarded more points for executing a difficult take-off or entry.^[46] They lose points if the partners fall or step out of a jump during a jump sequence or combination.^[44]

Throw jumps

Rena Inoue and John Baldwin, Jr. in 2004

Throw jumps are "partner assisted jumps in which the Lady is thrown into the air by the Man on the take-off and lands without assistance from her partner on a backward outside edge".^[39] Skate Canada says, "the male partner assists the female into flight".^[34] The types of throw jumps include: the throw axel, the throw salchow, the throw toe loop, the throw loop, the throw flip, and the throw lutz. The speed of the team's entry into the throw jump and the number of rotations performed increases its difficulty, as well as the height and/or distance they create.^[34] Pair teams must perform one throw jump during their short programs; senior teams can perform any double or triple throw jump, and junior teams must perform a double or triple salchow. If the throw jump is not done correctly, including if it has the wrong number of revolutions, it receives no value. Pair teams must perform a least two different throw jumps with a different number of revolutions.^[47]

Many pair skaters consider the throw jump "a jump rather than a throw".^[48] The throw jump is also considered an assisted jump, performed by the woman. The man supports the woman, initiates her rotations, and assists her with her height, timing, and direction.^[48] Poor take-offs occur when the man turns on the ice before throwing the woman, and weak landings occur when a throw jump is landed on the opposite leg or edge than the leg or edge they started on; poor take-offs and weak landing are both awarded fewer points.^[47]

The first throw triple axel jump performed in competition was by American pair team Rena Inoue and John Baldwin, Jr. at the 2006 U.S. Championships. They also performed it at the Four Continents Championships in 2006 and the 2006 Winter Olympics.^[49] The throw triple axel is a difficult throw to accomplish because the woman must perform 3 1/2 revolutions after being thrown by the man, a half-revolution more than other triple jumps, and because it requires a forward take-off.^[50]

Spins

East German pair skaters Sabine Baeß and Tassilo Thierbach performing a pair spin, 1979

Tatiana Volosozhar and Stanislav Morozov from Russia perform a side-by-side spin, 2007

Solo spin combinations

The solo spin combination must be performed once during the short program of pair skating competitions, with at least two revolutions in two basic positions. Both partners must include all three basic positions in order to earn the full points possible. There must be a minimum of five revolutions made on each foot.^[51] Spins can be commenced with jumps and must have at least two different basic positions, and both partners must include two revolutions in each position. A solo spin combination must have all three basic positions (the camel spin, the sit spin, and upright positions) performed by both partners, at any time during the spin to receive the full value of points, and must have all three basic positions performed by both partners to receive full value for the element. A spin with less than three revolutions is not counted as a spin; rather, it is considered a skating movement. If a skater changes to a non-basic position,^{[note 8]} it is not considered a change of position. The number of revolutions in non-basic positions, which may be considered difficult variations, are counted towards the team's total number of revolutions. Only positions, whether basic or non-basic, must be performed by the partners at the same time.^[39][53]

If a skater falls while entering into the spin, he or she can perform another spin or spinning movement immediately after the fall, to fill the time lost from the fall, but it is not counted as a solo spin combination. A change of foot, in the form of a jump or step over, is allowed, and the change of position and change of foot can be performed separately or at the same time.^[53] Pair teams require "significant strength, skill and control"^[52] to perform a change from a basic position to a different basic position without performing a nonbasic position first. They also have to execute a continuous movement throughout the change, without jumps to execute it, and they must hold the basic position for two revolutions both before and after the change.^[52] They lose points if they take a long time to reach the necessary basic position.^[54]

Pair teams earn more points for performing difficult entrances into their spins.^{[note 9]} Difficult flying entrances count, although backward entry into the spin and a flying camel do not. All entrances must have a "significant impact"^[54] on the spin's execution, balance, and control, and the intended spin position must be achieved within the team's first two revolutions. The rules surrounding difficult variations, which also apply to single skaters and to both partners, are also worth more points.^{[note 10]} There are 11 categories of difficult solo spin variations.^{[note 11]}

Spin combinations

Both junior and senior pair teams must perform one pair spin combination, which may begin with a fly spin, during their free skating programs.^[55] Pair spin combinations must have at least eight revolutions, which must be counted from "the entry of the spin until its exit".^[56] If spins are done with less than two revolutions, pairs receive zero points; if they have less than three revolutions, they are considered a skating movement, not a spin. Pair teams cannot, except for a short step when changing directions, stop while performing a rotation.^[56][55] Spins must have at least two different basic positions, with two revolutions in each positions performed by both partners anywhere within the spin; full value for pair spin combinations are awarded only when both partners perform all three basic positions.^[39] A spin executed in both clockwise and counter-clockwise directions is considered one spin. When a team simultaneously performs spins in both directions that immediately follow each other, they earn more points, but they must execute a minimum of three revolutions in each direction without any changes in position.^[57]

Both partners must execute at least one change of position and one change of foot (although not necessarily done simultaneously); if not, the element will have no value.^[58] Like the solo spin combination, the spin combination has three basic positions: the camel spin, the sit spin, and the upright spin. Also like the solo spin combination, changes to a non-basic position is counted towards the team's total number of revolutions and are not considered a change of position. A change of foot must have at least three revolutions, before and after the change, and can be any basic or non-basic position, in order for the element to be counted.^[59]

Fluctuations of speed and variations of positions of the head, arms, or free leg are allowed.^[51] Difficult variations of a combined pair spin must have at least two revolutions.^[59] The same rules apply for difficult entrances into pair spin combinations as they do for solo spin combinations, except that they must be executed by both partners for the element to count towards their final score.^[57] If one or both partners fall while entering a spin, they can execute a spin or a spinning movement to fill up time lost during the fall.^[55]

Death spirals

Keauna McLaughlin and Rockne Brubaker perform a death spiral during the 2008 U.S. Figure Skating Championships

The death spiral is "a circular move in which the male lowers his partner to the ice while she is arched backwards gliding on one foot".^[34] There are four types of death spirals: the forward inside death spiral, the backward inside death spiral, the backward outside death spiral, and the forward outside death spiral.^[60] According to Skate Canada, the forward inside death spiral is the easiest one to execute, and the forward outside death spiral is the most difficult.^{[34][note 12]}

In the 2018-2019 season, both junior and senior pair teams must perform the backward outside death spiral, and the death spiral performed in the short program at the senior level must be different than the death spiral during the free skating program. If a different death spiral other than what has been prescribed is executed, it receives no points. One death spiral is required for juniors and seniors during their free skate.^[56][61] The man is not allowed an opposite hand-hold as the team enters a death spiral during the short program, although it is allowed during the free skate. The woman, however, can use an opposite hand-hold during both programs. Both partners can execute a change of arm hold in both programs as well.^[62]

Step sequences

Step sequences in pair skating should be performed "together or close together".^[63] Step sequences must be a part of the short program, but they are not required in the free skating program. There is no required pattern, but pair teams must fully use the ice surface.^[63][64] The step sequence must be "visible and identifiable",^[63][64] in any shape they like (oval, circle, straight line, or serpentine). Step sequences can include any unlisted jump, regardless of the number of revolutions, and short stops, if they are done "in accordance with the music",^[64] are allowed. Retrogressions are not allowed.^[64]

All turns and steps must be performed on one foot, and they should have variety, which the ISU defines as at least 9 difficult turns and steps executed by both partners. The ISU also considers simple variety in step sequences at least seven difficult turns and steps, and minimum variety at least five difficult turns and steps. The types of turns and steps can only be counted once per sequence. The team must skate three meters or less near each other while executing the crossing feature of the sequence.^[65] They must not separate, with no breaks, for at least 1/2 of the sequence. Changes of holds, which can include "a brief moment" when the partners do not touch, are permitted during the step sequence.^[66]

The workload between the partners must be even and will help them earn more points. More points are rewarded to teams when they change places or holds, or when they perform difficult skating moves together.^[63] Teams also earn more points for the following: if they use difficult skating moves together and change holds and places during step sequences; if they execute rotations to either the right or the left, "with full body rotation covering at least 1/3 of the pattern in total for each rotational direction";^{[64][note 13]} if they use their body movements for at least 1/3 of the pattern; changes in position (defined as "crossing at least three times while doing steps and turns"^[64]) for at least 1/3 of the sequence but not over 1/2 of it; and if the partners execute two different combinations of three difficult turns.^[64]

Both partners must execute the combinations of difficult turns at the same time and with a clear rhythm, although they do not have to execute the same kind of turns. Partners can perform rockers, counters, brackets, loops, and twizzles during combinations of difficult turns. Three turns, changes of edges, jumps and/or hops, and changes of feet are not allowed, and "at least one turn in the combination must be of a different type than the others".^[67] Two combinations of difficult turns are the same if they consist of the same turns performed in the same order, on the same foot and on the same edges.^[67]

Rotations to either the right or the left can be accomplished with any listed and unlisted steps and turns, as long as they are done continuously in one direction for at least 1/3 of the sequence and then continuously for at least 1/3 of the sequence in the opposite direction (clockwise and anti-clockwise)".^[67] Rotations can also be performed throughout the length of the sequence the skaters are rotating with any unlisted and listed steps and turns they choose, for at least 1/3 of the total sequence and at least 1/3 of the total sequence in the opposite direction (also clockwise and anti-clockwise). Use of body movements is defined as the visible use by both partners any movements of the arms, and/or hips and/or legs and/or head and/or torso. These movements must affect the balance of the main body core, which affect the balance of the entire body and influence the balance on their blades.^[67]

Choreographic sequences

Aljona Savchenko and Robin Szolkowy (2005) from Germany perform a spiral

Pair teams must perform one choreographic sequence during their free skating programs.^[68] According to the ISU, a choreographic sequence "consists of any kind of movements like steps, turns, spirals, arabesques, spread eagles, Ina Bauers, hydroblading, any jumps with maximum of 2 revolutions, spins, small lifts, etc."^{[56][note 14]} It begins at the first skating movement and ends when the teams begins to prepare to execute the next element, unless the sequence is the last element performed during the program. Judges do not evaluate individual elements in a choreographic segment; rather, they note that it was accomplished. There are no restrictions limiting the sequence of the movements, but the sequence must be "clearly visible".^[56] Pair skaters, in order to earn the most points possible, must include the following in their choreographic sequences: they must have originality and creativity; the sequence must match the music and reflect the program's concept and character; and they must demonstrate effortlessness of the element as a sequence. They must also do the following: use the entire ice surface; demonstrate good unison between the partners; and demonstrate "excellent commitment" and control of the whole body.^[69]

Rules and regulations

Skaters must only execute the prescribed elements; if they do not, the extra or unprescribed elements will not be counted in their score. Only the first attempt of an element will be included.^[70] Violations in pair skating include falls, time, music, and clothing.

Falls

According to the ISU, a fall is defined as the "loss of control by a Skater with the result that the majority of his/her own body weight is on the ice supported by any other part of the body other than the blades; e.g. hand(s), knee(s), back, buttock(s) or any part of the arm".^[71] Australian single skater and coach Belinda Noonan stated, "Pairs skating is literally physically more dangerous than the other three disciplines".^[72] American pair skater Nathan Bartholomay agreed, comparing the danger in pair skating to playing in the National Football League.^[73] Sportswriter Sandra Loosemore, in her discussion of the accidents in all figure skating disciplines, stated that the "very nature" of pair skating "adds an extra dimension of danger and risk of injury"^[74] because of the high speed and close proximity pair teams skate to each other, and the lifts and other elements in pair skating. Both members of a pair skating team have received broken noses and other injuries from performing twist lifts incorrectly, and although male partners are taught to protect their partners in case of a fall from an overhead lift, concussions and serious head injuries are common. The ISU has banned and restricted dangerous tricks and moves from pair skating, but both skating audiences and skaters have demanded them. Skaters have resisted using protective gear, even during practice, because it interferes with developing self-confidence and is seen as incompatible with "the aesthetic aspects of the sport".^[74]

For pair skaters, one point is deducted for every fall by one partner, and two points are deducted for every fall by both partners.^[75] According to former American figure skater Katrina Hacker, falls occur for the following reasons: the skater makes an error during his or her takeoff; his or her jump is under-rotated, or not fully rotated while the skater is in the air; the skater executes a tilted jump and is unable to land upright on his or her feet; and the skater makes an error during the first jump of a combination jump, resulting in not having enough smoothness, speed, and flow to complete the second jump.^[76] If there is an interruption while performing their program, skaters can lose one point if it lasts more than 10 seconds but not over 20 seconds. They can lose two points if the interruption lasts 20 seconds but not over 30 seconds, and three points if it lasts 30 seconds but not more than 40 seconds. They can lose five points if they can resume their program three minutes after the interruption begins.^[77] ISU rules leaves stopping a program for medical reasons up to the discretion of the competition referee, who decides, after consulting with the skaters' team physician or the doctor provided by the competition's organizer, to end a program, but it must be done within three minutes after the fall or interruption; if not, the skater or team must withdraw.^[78][79]

Time

As for all skating disciplines, judges penalize pair skaters one point up to every five seconds for ending their programs too early or too late.^[80] If they start their programs between one and 30 seconds late, they can lose one point.^[81] Restrictions for finishing the short program and the free skating program are similar to the requirements of the other disciplines in figure skating. They can complete these programs within plus or minus 10 seconds of the required times; if they cannot, judges can deduct points if they finish up to five seconds too early or too late. If they begin skating any element after their required time (plus the required 10 seconds they have to begin), they earn no points for those elements. If the program's duration is completed less than 30 or more seconds early, skaters will receive no points for any elements performed during that time.^[82]

Music

The ISU defines the interpretation of the music in all figure skating disciplines as "the personal, creative, and genuine translation of the rhythm, character and content of music to movement on ice".^[83] Judges take the following things into account when scoring the short program and the free skating program: the steps and movement in time to the music; the expression of the character of the music; and the use of finesse.^{[note 15]}

The use of vocals was expanded to pair skating, as well as to single skating, starting in 2014; the first Olympics affected by this change was in 2018 in PeongChang, South Korea.^{[84][note 16]} The ISU's decision, done to increase the sport's audience, to encourage more participation, and to give skaters and choreographers more choice in constructing their programs, had divided support among skaters, coaches, and choreographers.^[85][86]

Clothing

As for the other disciplines of figure skating, the clothing worn by pair skaters at ISU Championships, the Olympics, and international competitions must be "modest, dignified and appropriate for athletic competition—not garish or theatrical in design".^[87] Props and accessories are not allowed. Clothing can reflect the character of the skaters' chosen music and must not "give the effect of excessive nudity inappropriate for the discipline".^[87] All men must wear trousers, a rule that has been in effect since the 1994-1995 season.^[87][88][89] Since 2003, women skaters have been able to wear skirts, trousers, tights, and unitards.^[88][90] Decorations on costumes must be "non-detachable";^[87] judges can deduct one point per program if part of the competitors' costumes or decorations fall on the ice.^[81] If there is a costume or prop violation, the judges can deduct one point per program.

If competitors do not adhere to these guidelines, the judges can deduct points from their total score, if most of the panel, including the referee, thinks a skater's outfit is inappropriate.^[87][88] However, costume deductions are rare. Juliet Newcomer from U.S. Figure Skating stated that by the time skaters get to a national or world championship, they have received enough feedback about their costumes and are no longer willing to take any more risks of losing points.^[88] Former competitive skater and designer Braden Overett, told the New York Post that there is "an informal review process before major competitions such as the Olympics, during which judges communicate their preferences".^[91]

Also according to the New York Post, one of the goals of skaters and designers is to ensure that a costume's design, which can "make or break a performance", does not affect the skaters' scores.^[91] According to former competitive skater and fashion writer Shalayne Pulia, figure skating costume designers are part of a skater's "support team".^[92] Designers collaborate with skaters and their coaches to help them design costumes that fit the themes and requirements of their programs for months before the start of each season.^[90] There have been calls to require figure skaters to wear uniforms like other competitive sports, in order to make the sport less expensive and more inclusive, and to emphasize its athletic side.^[93]

Footnotes

References

Works cited

• Hines, James R. (2011). Historical Dictionary of Figure Skating. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press.
  ISBN 978-0-8108-6859-5.


• Kestnbaum, Ellyn (2003). Culture on Ice: Figure Skating and Cultural Meaning. Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press.
  ISBN 0819566411.


• 
  "Special Regulations & Technical Rules Single & Pair Skating and Ice Dance 2018". International Skating Union. June 2018. Retrieved 2 November 2018 (S&P/ID 2018)


• 
  "Special Regulations & Technical Rules Synchronized Skating 2018". International Skating Union. June 2018. Retrieved 13 November 2018 (ISU 2018).


• 
  "Technical Panel Handbook: Pair Skating" (PDF). ISU Judging System. International Skating Union. 19 July 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018 (Tech Panel).

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