List of Presidents of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States, indirectly elected to a four-year term by the people through the Electoral College. The officeholder leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces.
Since the office was established in 1789, 44 men have served as president. The first, George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College. Grover Cleveland served two non-consecutive terms in office and is therefore counted as the 22nd and 24th President of the United States; the 45th and current president is Donald Trump (since January 20, 2017). There are currently four living former presidents. The most recent former president to die was George H. W. Bush on November 30, 2018.
The presidency of William Henry Harrison, who died 31 days after taking office in 1841, was the shortest in American history. Franklin D. Roosevelt served the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms. Since the ratification of the Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once.[1]
Of those who have served as the nation's president, four died in office of natural causes (William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four were assassinated (Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, William McKinley and John F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon facing impeachment). John Tyler was the first vice president to assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with his own presidency, as opposed to a caretaker president. The Twenty-fifth Amendment to the Constitution put Tyler's precedent into law in 1967. It also established a mechanism by which an intra-term vacancy in the vice presidency could be filled. Richard Nixon was the first president to fill a vacancy under this provision when he selected Gerald Ford for the office following Spiro Agnew's resignation in 1973. The following year, Ford became the second to do so when he chose Nelson Rockefeller to succeed him after he acceded to the presidency. As no mechanism existed for filling an intra-term vacancy in the vice presidency prior to 1967, the office was left vacant until filled through the next ensuing presidential election.
Throughout most of its history, American politics has been dominated by political parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, there were no parties. Soon after the 1st Congress convened, factions began rallying around dominant Washington Administration officials, such as Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson. Greatly concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remained unaffiliated with any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party.[2] Since Washington, every president has been affiliated with a political party at the time they assumed office.
Contents
1 Presidents
2 Subsequent public office
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
6 External links
Presidents
Unaffiliated (2) Federalist (1) Democratic-Republican (4) Democratic (15) Whig (4) Republican (19) National Union (2) | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Presidency[a] | President | Prior office[b] | Party[c] | Term[d] | Vice President | |||
1 | April 30, 1789 [e] – March 4, 1797 |  | George Washington 1732–1799 (Lived: 67 years) [3][4][5] | Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army (1775–1783) | | Unaffiliated [2] | (1788–89) 1 (1789) | John Adams [f][g] |
(1792) 2 (1793) | ||||||||
2 | March 4, 1797 – March 4, 1801 |  | John Adams 1735–1826 (Lived: 90 years) [6][7][8] | 1st Vice President of the United States | Federalist | (1796) 3 (1797) | Thomas Jefferson [h] | |
3 | March 4, 1801 – March 4, 1809 |  | Thomas Jefferson 1743–1826 (Lived: 83 years) [9][10][11] | 2nd Vice President of the United States | Democratic- Republican | (1800) 4 (1801) | Aaron Burr March 4, 1801 – March 4, 1805 | |
(1804) 5 (1805) | George Clinton March 4, 1805 – March 4, 1809 | |||||||
4 | March 4, 1809 – March 4, 1817 |  | James Madison 1751–1836 (Lived: 85 years) [12][13][14] | 5th United States Secretary of State (1801–1809) | Democratic- Republican | (1808) 6 (1809) | George Clinton March 4, 1809 – April 20, 1812 (Died in office) | |
Office vacant (Balance of Clinton's term) | ||||||||
(1812) 7 (1813) | Elbridge Gerry March 4, 1813 – November 23, 1814 (Died in office) | |||||||
Office vacant (Balance of Gerry's term) | ||||||||
5 | March 4, 1817 – March 4, 1825 |  | James Monroe 1758–1831 (Lived: 73 years) [15][16][17] | 7th United States Secretary of State (1811–1817) | Democratic- Republican | (1816) 8 (1817) | Daniel D. Tompkins | |
(1820) 9 (1821) | ||||||||
6 | March 4, 1825 – March 4, 1829 |  | John Quincy Adams 1767–1848 (Lived: 80 years) [18][19][20] | 8th United States Secretary of State (1817–1825) | Democratic- Republican | (1824) 10 (1825) | John C. Calhoun | |
7 | March 4, 1829 – March 4, 1837 |  | Andrew Jackson 1767–1845 (Lived: 78 years) [21][22][23] | U.S. Senator (Class 2) from Tennessee (1797–1798 & 1823–1825) | Democratic | (1828) 11 (1829) | John C. Calhoun [i] March 4, 1829 – December 28, 1832 (Resigned from office) | |
Office vacant (Balance of Calhoun's term) | ||||||||
(1832) 12 (1833) | Martin Van Buren March 4, 1833 – March 4, 1837 | |||||||
8 | March 4, 1837 – March 4, 1841 |  | Martin Van Buren 1782–1862 (Lived: 79 years) [24][25][26] | 8th Vice President of the United States | Democratic | (1836) 13 (1837) | Richard M. Johnson | |
9 | March 4, 1841 – April 4, 1841 (Died in office) |  | William Henry Harrison 1773–1841 (Lived: 68 years) [27][28][29] | United States Minister to Colombia (1828–1829) | Whig | (1840) 14 (1841) (1841) [j] | John Tyler (Succeeded to presidency) | |
10 | April 4, 1841 [k] – March 4, 1845 |  | John Tyler 1790–1862 (Lived: 71 years) [30][31][32] | 10th Vice President of the United States | Whig April 4, 1841 – September 13, 1841 | Office vacant | ||
Unaffiliated September 13, 1841 – March 4, 1845 [l] | ||||||||
11 | March 4, 1845 – March 4, 1849 |  | James K. Polk 1795–1849 (Lived: 53 years) [33][34][35] | 9th Governor of Tennessee (1839–1841) | Democratic | (1844) 15 (1845) | George M. Dallas | |
12 | March 4, 1849 – July 9, 1850 (Died in office) |  | Zachary Taylor 1784–1850 (Lived: 65 years) [36][37][38] | Major General of the 1st Infantry Regiment United States Army (1846–1849) (No prior elected office) | Whig | (1848) 16 (1849) (1850) [j] | Millard Fillmore (Succeeded to presidency) | |
13 | July 9, 1850 [m] – March 4, 1853 |  | Millard Fillmore 1800–1874 (Lived: 74 years) [39][40][41] | 12th Vice President of the United States | Whig | Office vacant | ||
14 | March 4, 1853 – March 4, 1857 |  | Franklin Pierce 1804–1869 (Lived: 64 years) [42][43][44] | Brigadier General of the 9th Infantry United States Army (1847–1848) | Democratic | (1852) 17 (1853) | William R. King March 4 – April 18, 1853 (Died in office) | |
Office vacant (Balance of King's term) | ||||||||
15 | March 4, 1857 – March 4, 1861 |  | James Buchanan 1791–1868 (Lived: 77 years) [45][46][47] | United States Minister to the Court of St James's (1853–1856) | Democratic | (1856) 18 (1857) | John C. Breckinridge | |
16 | March 4, 1861 – April 15, 1865 (Died in office) |  | Abraham Lincoln 1809–1865 (Lived: 56 years) [48][49][50] | U.S. Representative for Illinois's 7th District (1847–1849) | Republican (National Union) [n] | (1860) 19 (1861) | Hannibal Hamlin March 4, 1861 – March 4, 1865 | |
(1864) 20 (1865) (1865) [j] | Andrew Johnson March 4 – April 15, 1865 (Succeeded to presidency) | |||||||
17 | April 15, 1865 – March 4, 1869 |  | Andrew Johnson 1808–1875 (Lived: 66 years) [51][52][53] | 16th Vice President of the United States | National Union April 15, 1865 – c. 1868 | Office vacant | ||
Democratic c. 1868 – March 4, 1869 [o] | ||||||||
18 | March 4, 1869 – March 4, 1877 |  | Ulysses S. Grant 1822–1885 (Lived: 63 years) [54][55][56] | Commanding General of the U.S. Army (1864–1869) (No prior elected office) | Republican | (1868) 21 (1869) | Schuyler Colfax March 4, 1869 – March 4, 1873 | |
(1872) 22 (1873) | Henry Wilson March 4, 1873 – November 22, 1875 (Died in office) | |||||||
Office vacant (Balance of Wilson's term) | ||||||||
19 | March 4, 1877 – March 4, 1881 |  | Rutherford B. Hayes 1822–1893 (Lived: 70 years) [57][58][59] | 29th & 32nd Governor of Ohio (1868–1872 & 1876–1877) | Republican | (1876) 23 (1877) | William A. Wheeler | |
| 20 | March 4, 1881 – September 19, 1881 (Died in office) |  | James A. Garfield 1831–1881 (Lived: 49 years) [60][61][62] | U.S. Representative for Ohio's 19th District (1863–1881) | Republican | (1880) 24 (1881) (1881) [j] | Chester A. Arthur (Succeeded to presidency) | |
21 | September 19, 1881 [p] – March 4, 1885 |  | Chester A. Arthur 1829–1886 (Lived: 57 years) [63][64][65] | 20th Vice President of the United States | Republican | Office vacant | ||
22 | March 4, 1885 – March 4, 1889 |  | Grover Cleveland 1837–1908 (Lived: 71 years) [66][67] | 28th Governor of New York (1883–1885) | Democratic | (1884) 25 (1885) | Thomas A. Hendricks March 4 – November 25, 1885 (Died in office) | |
Office vacant (Balance of Hendricks's term) | ||||||||
23 | March 4, 1889 – March 4, 1893 |  | Benjamin Harrison 1833–1901 (Lived: 67 years) [68][69][70] | U.S. Senator (Class 1) from Indiana (1881–1887) | Republican | (1888) 26 (1889) | Levi P. Morton | |
24 | March 4, 1893 – March 4, 1897 | | Grover Cleveland 1837–1908 (Lived: 71 years) [66][67] | 22nd President of the United States (1885–1889) | Democratic | (1892) 27 (1893) | Adlai Stevenson | |
25 | March 4, 1897 – September 14, 1901 (Died in office) |  | William McKinley 1843–1901 (Lived: 58 years) [71][72][73] | 39th Governor of Ohio (1892–1896) | Republican | (1896) 28 (1897) | Garret Hobart March 4, 1897 – November 21, 1899 (Died in office) | |
Office vacant (Balance of Hobart's term) | ||||||||
(1900) 29 (1901) (1901) [j] | Theodore Roosevelt March 4 – September 14, 1901 (Succeeded to presidency) | |||||||
26 | September 14, 1901 – March 4, 1909 |  | Theodore Roosevelt 1858–1919 (Lived: 60 years) [74][75][76] | 25th Vice President of the United States | Republican | Office vacant September 14, 1901 – March 4, 1905 | ||
(1904) 30 (1905) | Charles W. Fairbanks March 4, 1905 – March 4, 1909 | |||||||
27 | March 4, 1909 – March 4, 1913 |  | William Howard Taft 1857–1930 (Lived: 72 years) [77][78][79] | 42nd United States Secretary of War (1904–1908) | Republican | (1908) 31 (1909) | James S. Sherman March 4, 1909 – October 30, 1912 (Died in office) | |
Office vacant (Balance of Sherman's term) | ||||||||
28 | March 4, 1913 – March 4, 1921 |  | Woodrow Wilson 1856–1924 (Lived: 67 years) [80][81][82] | 34th Governor of New Jersey (1911–1913) | Democratic | (1912) 32 (1913) | Thomas R. Marshall | |
(1916) 33 (1917) | ||||||||
29 | March 4, 1921 – August 2, 1923 (Died in office) |  | Warren G. Harding 1865–1923 (Lived: 57 years) [83][84][85] | U.S. Senator (Class 3) from Ohio (1915–1921) | Republican | (1920) 34 (1921) (1923) [j] | Calvin Coolidge (Succeeded to presidency) | |
30 | August 2, 1923 [q] – March 4, 1929 |  | Calvin Coolidge 1872–1933 (Lived: 60 years) [86][87][88] | 29th Vice President of the United States | Republican | Office vacant August 2, 1923 – March 4, 1925 | ||
(1924) 35 (1925) | Charles G. Dawes March 4, 1925 – March 4, 1929 | |||||||
31 | March 4, 1929 – March 4, 1933 |  | Herbert Hoover 1874–1964 (Lived: 90 years) [89][90][91] | 3rd United States Secretary of Commerce (1921–1928) (No prior elected office) | Republican | (1928) 36 (1929) | Charles Curtis | |
32 | March 4, 1933 – April 12, 1945 (Died in office) |  | Franklin D. Roosevelt 1882–1945 (Lived: 63 years) [92][93][94] | 44th Governor of New York (1929–1932) | Democratic | (1932) 37 (1933) | John N. Garner March 4, 1933 – January 20, 1941 [r] | |
(1936) 38 (1937) | ||||||||
(1940) 39 (1941) | Henry A. Wallace January 20, 1941 – January 20, 1945 | |||||||
(1944) 40 (1945) (1945) [j] | Harry S. Truman January 20 – April 12, 1945 (Succeeded to presidency) | |||||||
33 | April 12, 1945 – January 20, 1953 |  | Harry S. Truman 1884–1972 (Lived: 88 years) [95][96][97] | 34th Vice President of the United States | Democratic | Office vacant April 12, 1945 – January 20, 1949 | ||
(1948) 41 (1949) | Alben W. Barkley January 20, 1949 – January 20, 1953 | |||||||
34 | January 20, 1953 – January 20, 1961 |  | Dwight D. Eisenhower 1890–1969 (Lived: 78 years) [98][99][100] | Supreme Allied Commander Europe (1949–1952) (No prior elected office) | Republican | (1952) 42 (1953) | Richard Nixon | |
(1956) 43 (1957) | ||||||||
35 | January 20, 1961 – November 22, 1963 (Died in office) |  | John F. Kennedy 1917–1963 (Lived: 46 years) [101][102][103] | U.S. Senator (Class 1) from Massachusetts (1953–1960) | Democratic | (1960) 44 (1961) (1963) [j] | Lyndon B. Johnson (Succeeded to presidency) | |
36 | November 22, 1963 – January 20, 1969 |  | Lyndon B. Johnson 1908–1973 (Lived: 64 years) [104][105] | 37th Vice President of the United States | Democratic | Office vacant November 22, 1963 – January 20, 1965 | ||
(1964) 45 (1965) | Hubert Humphrey January 20, 1965 – January 20, 1969 | |||||||
37 | January 20, 1969 – August 9, 1974 (Resigned from office) |  | Richard Nixon 1913–1994 (Lived: 81 years) [106][107][108] | 36th Vice President of the United States (1953–1961) | Republican | (1968) 46 (1969) | Spiro Agnew January 20, 1969 – October 10, 1973 (Resigned from office) | |
(1972) 47 (1973) (1974) [j] | ||||||||
Office vacant October 10 – December 6, 1973 | ||||||||
Gerald Ford December 6, 1973 – August 9, 1974 (Succeeded to presidency) | ||||||||
38 | August 9, 1974 – January 20, 1977 |  | Gerald Ford 1913–2006 (Lived: 93 years) [109][110][111] | 40th Vice President of the United States | Republican | Office vacant August 9 – December 19, 1974 | ||
Nelson Rockefeller December 19, 1974 – January 20, 1977 | ||||||||
39 | January 20, 1977 – January 20, 1981 |  | Jimmy Carter Born 1924 (94 years old) [112][113][114] | 76th Governor of Georgia (1971–1975) | Democratic | (1976) 48 (1977) | Walter Mondale | |
40 | January 20, 1981 – January 20, 1989 |  | Ronald Reagan 1911–2004 (Lived: 93 years) [115][116][117] | 33rd Governor of California (1967–1975) | Republican | (1980) 49 (1981) | George H. W. Bush | |
(1984) 50 (1985) | ||||||||
41 | January 20, 1989 – January 20, 1993 |  | George H. W. Bush 1924–2018 (Lived: 94 years) [118][119][120] | 43rd Vice President of the United States | Republican | (1988) 51 (1989) | Dan Quayle | |
42 | January 20, 1993 – January 20, 2001 |  | Bill Clinton Born 1946 (72 years old) [121][122][123] | 40th & 42nd Governor of Arkansas (1979–1981 & 1983–1992) | Democratic | (1992) 52 (1993) | Al Gore | |
(1996) 53 (1997) | ||||||||
43 | January 20, 2001 – January 20, 2009 |  | George W. Bush Born 1946 (72 years old) [124][125] | 46th Governor of Texas (1995–2000) | Republican | (2000) 54 (2001) | Dick Cheney | |
(2004) 55 (2005) | ||||||||
44 | January 20, 2009 – January 20, 2017 |  | Barack Obama Born 1961 (57 years old) [126][127] | U.S. Senator (Class 3) from Illinois (2005–2008) | Democratic | (2008) 56 (2009) | Joe Biden | |
(2012) 57 (2013) | ||||||||
45 | January 20, 2017 – Incumbent |  | Donald Trump Born 1946 (72 years old) [128][129] | Chairman of The Trump Organization (1971–2017) (No prior elected office) | Republican | (2016) 58 (2017) | Mike Pence | |
Subsequent public office
Three presidents held another U.S. federal office after serving as president.
| President | Presidency[a] | Subsequent service | |
|---|---|---|---|
John Quincy Adams | 6 | 1825–1829 | U.S. Representative from Massachusetts (1831–1848) |
Andrew Johnson | 17 | 1865–1869 | U.S. Senator from Tennessee (1875) |
William Howard Taft | 27 | 1909–1913 | 10th Chief Justice of the United States (1921–1930) |
Several presidents campaigned unsuccessfully for other U.S. state or federal elective offices after serving as president.
| President | Presidency[a] | Office sought unsuccessfully | |
|---|---|---|---|
John Quincy Adams | 6 | 1825–1829 | Governor of Massachusetts (1833) |
Martin Van Buren | 8 | 1837–1841 | President of the United States (1844) |
| President of the United States (1848) | |||
Millard Fillmore | 13 | 1850–1853 | President of the United States (1856) |
Andrew Johnson | 17 | 1865–1869 | U.S. Senator from Tennessee (1870) |
U.S. Representative from Tennessee (1872) | |||
Ulysses S. Grant | 18 | 1869–1877 | President of the United States (1880) |
Theodore Roosevelt | 26 | 1901–1909 | President of the United States (1912) |
Herbert Hoover | 31 | 1929–1933 | President of the United States (1940) |
Additionally, one former president, John Tyler, served in the government of the Confederate States during the American Civil War. Tyler served in the Provisional Confederate Congress from 1861 to 1862. He was elected to the Confederate House of Representatives in November 1861, but died before he could take his seat.
See also
- Acting President of the United States
- Founding Fathers of the United States
- List of Presidents of the Continental Congress
- List of Vice Presidents of the United States
Notes
^ abc The presidents are numbered according to uninterrupted periods of time served by the same person. For example, George Washington served two consecutive terms and is counted as the first president (not the first and second). Upon the resignation of 37th president Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford became the 38th president even though he simply served out the remainder of Nixon's second term and was never elected to the presidency in his own right. Grover Cleveland was both the 22nd president and the 24th president because his two terms were not consecutive. A vice president who temporarily becomes acting president under the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the Constitution is not counted, because the president remains in office during such a period.
^ Listed here is the most recent office (either with a U.S. state, the federal government, or a private corporation) held by the individual prior to becoming president.
^ Three presidents are counted above with multiple political affiliations: John Tyler (Whig, Unaffiliated), Abraham Lincoln (Republican, National Union), and Andrew Johnson (National Union, Democratic).
^ Listed and numbered here are the elections and inaugurations that constitute a presidential term.
^ Due to logistical delays, instead of being inaugurated on March 4, 1789, the date scheduled for operations of the federal government under the new Constitution to begin, Washington's first inauguration was held 1 month and 26 days later. As a result, his first term was only 1,404 days long (as opposed to the usual 1,461), and was the shortest term for a U.S. president who served a full term.
^ Political parties had not been anticipated when the Constitution was drafted in 1787 and ratified in 1788, nor did they exist at the time of the first presidential election in 1788–89. When they did develop, during Washington's first term, Adams joined the faction that became the Federalist Party. The elections of 1792 were the first ones in the United States that were contested on anything resembling a partisan basis.
^ Due to logistical delays, Adams assumed the office of Vice President 1 month and 17 days after the March 4, 1789 scheduled start of operations of the new government under the Constitution. As a result, his first term was only 1,413 days long, and was the shortest term for a U.S. vice president who served a full term.
^ The 1796 presidential election was the first contested American presidential election and the only one in which a president and vice president were elected from opposing political parties. Federalist John Adams was elected president, and Jefferson of the Democratic-Republicans was elected vice president.
^ John Calhoun, formerly a Democratic-Republican, founded the Nullifier Party in 1828 to oppose the Tariff of 1828 and advance the cause of states' rights, but was brought on as Andrew Jackson's running mate in the 1828 presidential election in an effort to broaden the democratic coalition led by Jackson.
^ abcdefghi Intra-term extraordinary inauguration.
^ John Tyler was sworn in as president on April 6, 1841.
^ John Tyler, a former Democrat, ran for vice president on the Whig Party ticket with Harrison in 1840. Tyler's policy priorities as president soon proved to be opposed to most of the Whig agenda, and he was expelled from the party in September 1841.
^ Millard Fillmore was sworn in as president on July 10, 1850.
^ When he ran for reelection in 1864, Republican Abraham Lincoln formed a bipartisan electoral alliance with War Democrats by selecting Democrat Andrew Johnson as his running mate, and running on the National Union Party ticket.
^ Democrat Andrew Johnson ran for vice president on the National Union Party ticket with Republican Abraham Lincoln in 1864. Later, while president, Johnson tried and failed to build a party of loyalists under the National Union banner. Near the end of his presidency, Johnson rejoined the Democratic Party.
^ Chester A. Arthur was initially sworn in as president on September 20, 1881, and then again on September 22.
^ Calvin Coolidge was initially sworn in as president on August 3, 1923, and then again on August 21.
^ The Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution (ratified on January 23, 1933) moved Inauguration Day from March 4 to January 20, beginning in 1937. As a result, Garner's first term in office was 1 month and 12 days shorter than a normal term.
References
^ "The Constitution: Amendments 11–27". U.S. National Archives & Records Administration. Retrieved October 1, 2008..mw-parser-output cite.citationfont-style:inherit.mw-parser-output qquotes:"""""""'""'".mw-parser-output code.cs1-codecolor:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-free abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-registration abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-subscription abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registrationcolor:#555.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration spanborder-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-errordisplay:none;font-size:100%.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-errorfont-size:100%.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-formatfont-size:95%.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-leftpadding-left:0.2em.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-rightpadding-right:0.2em
^ ab Jamison, Dennis (December 31, 2014). "George Washington's views on political parties in America". The Washington Times. Retrieved July 1, 2016.
^ "George Washington". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "George Washington". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of George Washington". American Presidents: Life Portraits. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "John Adams". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "John Adams". History. Retrieved November 21, 2016.
^ "Life Portrait of John Adams". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "Thomas Jefferson". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Thomas Jefferson". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of Thomas Jefferson". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "James Madison". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "James Madison". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of James Madison". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "James Monroe". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "James Monroe". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of James Monroe". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "John Quincy Adams". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "John Quincy Adams". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of John Quincy Adams". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "Andrew Jackson". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Andrew Jackson". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of Andrew Jackson". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "Martin Van Buren". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Martin Van Buren". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of Martin Van Buren". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "William Henry Harrison". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "William Henry Harrison". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of William Henry Harrison". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "John Tyler". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "John Tyler". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of John Tyler". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "James K. Polk". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "James K. Polk". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of James K. Polk". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "Zachary Taylor". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Zachary Taylor". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of Zachary Taylor". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "Millard Fillmore". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Millard Fillmore". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of Millard Fillmore". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "Franklin Pierce". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Franklin Pierce". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of Franklin Pierce". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "James Buchanan". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "James Buchanan". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of James Buchanan". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "Abraham Lincoln". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Abraham Lincoln". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of Abraham Lincoln". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "Andrew Johnson". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Andrew Johnson". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of Andrew Johnson". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "Ulysses S. Grant". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Ulysses S. Grant". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of Ulysses S. Grant". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "Rutherford B. Hayes". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Rutherford B. Hayes". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of Rutherford B. Hayes". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "James Garfield". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "James A. Garfield". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of James Garfield". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "Chester A. Arthur". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Chester A. Arthur". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of Chester A. Arthur". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ ab "Grover Cleveland". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ ab "Life Portrait of Grover Cleveland". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "Benjamin Harrison". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Benjamin Harrison". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of Benjamin Harrison". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "William McKinley". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "William McKinley". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of William McKinley". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "Theodore Roosevelt". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Theodore Roosevelt". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of Theodore Roosevelt". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "William Howard Taft". whitehouse.gov. March 13, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "William Howard Taft". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of William Howard Taft". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "Woodrow Wilson". whitehouse.gov. March 13, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Woodrow Wilson". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of Woodrow Wilson". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "Warren G. Harding". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Warren G. Harding". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved November 27, 2016.
^ "Life Portrait of Warren G. Harding". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "Calvin Coolidge". whitehouse.gov. March 13, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Calvin Coolidge". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of Calvin Coolidge". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "Herbert Hoover". whitehouse.gov. March 13, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Herbert Hoover". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of Herbert Hoover". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "Franklin D. Roosevelt". whitehouse.gov. March 20, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Franklin D. Roosevelt". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of Franklin D. Roosevelt". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ "Harry S. Truman". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Harry Truman". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of Harry S. Truman". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 7, 2016.
^ "Dwight D. Eisenhower". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Dwight D. Eisenhower". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of Dwight D. Eisenhower". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 7, 2016.
^ "John F. Kennedy". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "John F. Kennedy". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of John F. Kennedy". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 7, 2016.
^ "Lyndon B. Johnson". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of Lyndon B. Johnson". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 7, 2016.
^ "Richard M. Nixon". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Richard M. Nixon". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of Richard M. Nixon". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 7, 2016.
^ "Gerald R. Ford". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Gerald Ford". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of Gerald R. Ford". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 7, 2016.
^ "James Carter". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Jimmy Carter". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of Jimmy Carter". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 7, 2016.
^ "Ronald Reagan". whitehouse.gov. June 25, 2008. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Ronald Reagan". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
^ "Life Portrait of Ronald Reagan". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 7, 2016.
^ "George H. W. Bush". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "George Bush". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved November 27, 2016.
^ "Life Portrait of George H.W. Bush". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 7, 2016.
^ "William J. Clinton". whitehouse.gov. March 12, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Bill Clinton". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved November 27, 2016.
^ "Life Portrait of Bill Clinton". American Presidents: Life Portrait. C-SPAN. Retrieved March 7, 2016.
^ "George W. Bush". whitehouse.gov. February 25, 2007. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "George W. Bush". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved November 27, 2016.
^ "Barack Obama". whitehouse.gov. January 20, 2017. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Barack Obama". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved November 27, 2016.
^ "President Donald J. Trump". whitehouse.gov. January 20, 2017. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
^ "Donald Trump". History.com. A&E Networks. Retrieved January 20, 2017.
External links
 | Wikimedia Commons has media related to President of the United States. |
Presidents of the United States – Wikipedia book- Whitehouse.gov: The Presidents
Hauenstein Center | Presidential Leadership Studies at Grand Valley State University
POTUS: Presidents of the United States at the Internet Public Library
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